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Ledger Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Decentralized control, low-complexity, flexible and efficient communications are the requirements of an architecture that aims to scale blockchains beyond the current state. Such properties are attainable by reducing ledger size and providing parallel operations in the blockchain. Sharding is one of the approaches that lower the burden of the nodes and enhance performance. However, the current solutions lack the features for\n            <jats:italic>resolving concurrency<\/jats:italic>\n            during cross-shard communications. With multiple participants belonging to different shards, handling concurrent operations is essential for optimal sharding. This issue becomes prominent due to the lack of architectural support and requires additional consensus for cross-shard communications. Relying on the advantages of hybrid\n            <jats:italic>Proof-of-Work\/Proof-of-Stake<\/jats:italic>\n            (PoW\/PoS), like\n            <jats:italic>Ethereum<\/jats:italic>\n            ,\n            <jats:italic>hybrid consensus<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic>2-hop blockchain<\/jats:italic>\n            , we propose\n            <jats:italic>Reinshard<\/jats:italic>\n            , a new blockchain that inherits the properties of hybrid consensus for optimal sharding.\n            <jats:italic>Reinshard<\/jats:italic>\n            uses PoW and PoS chain-pairs with PoS sub-chains for all the valid chain-pairs where the hybrid consensus is attained through\n            <jats:italic>Verifiable Delay Function<\/jats:italic>\n            (VDF). Our architecture provides a secure method of arranging nodes in shards and resolves concurrency conflicts using the delay factor of VDF. The applicability of\n            <jats:italic>Reinshard<\/jats:italic>\n            is demonstrated through security and experimental evaluations. A practical concurrency problem is considered to show the efficacy of\n            <jats:italic>Reinshard<\/jats:italic>\n            in providing optimal sharding.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3547300","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,22]],"date-time":"2022-09-22T13:25:27Z","timestamp":1663853127000},"page":"1-23","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Reinshard: An Optimally Sharded Dual-Blockchain for Concurrency Resolution"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"1","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7470-6506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishal","family":"Sharma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast, NI, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0758-7230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zengpeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0871-3729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Sza\u0142achowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3373-699X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teik Guan","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0594-0432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianying","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","first-page":"757","volume-title":"Proceedings of the CRYPTO","author":"Boneh Dan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dan Boneh, Joseph Bonneau, Benedikt B\u00fcnz, and Ben Fisch. 2018. 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