{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T21:39:15Z","timestamp":1772314755070,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2018YFB1800404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFB1800404"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Internet Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In the inter-domain network, route leaks can disrupt the Internet traffic and cause large outages. The accurate detection of route leaks requires the sharing of AS business relationship information. However, the business relationship information between ASes is confidential. ASes are usually unwilling to reveal this information to the other ASes, especially their competitors. In this paper, we propose a method named FL-RLD to detect route leaks while maintaining the privacy of business relationships between ASes by using a blockchain-based federated learning framework, where ASes can collaboratively train a global detection model without directly disclosing their specific business relationships. To mitigate the lack of ground-truth validation data in route leaks, FL-RLD provides a self-validation scheme by labeling AS triples with local routing policies. We evaluate FL-RLD under a variety of datasets including imbalanced and balanced datasets, and examine different deployment strategies of FL-RLD under different topologies. According to the results, FL-RLD performs better in detecting route leaks than the single AS detection, whether the datasets are balanced or imbalanced. Additionally, the results indicate that selecting ASes with the most peers to first deploy FL-RLD brings more significant benefits in detecting route leaks than selecting ASes with the most providers and customers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3561051","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,1]],"date-time":"2022-09-01T11:46:21Z","timestamp":1662032781000},"page":"1-22","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Federated Route Leak Detection in Inter-domain Routing with Privacy Guarantee"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2501-552X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Man","family":"Zeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2779-240X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dandan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9789-7277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4009-6601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7275-2274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1109\/NILES50944.2020.9257981","volume-title":"2020 2nd Novel Intelligent and Leading Emerging Sciences Conference (NILES)","author":"Monem Salma Abd El","year":"2020","unstructured":"Salma Abd El Monem, Ahmed Khalafallah, and Samir I. Shaheen. 2020. BGP route leaks detection using supervised machine learning technique. In 2020 2nd Novel Intelligent and Leading Emerging Sciences Conference (NILES). IEEE, 15\u201320."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2815675.2815712"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","unstructured":"Alexander Azimov Eugene Bogomazov Randy Bush Keyur Patel and Job Snijders. 2018. Verification of AS PATH Using the Resource Certificate Public Key Infrastructure and Autonomous System Provider Authorization. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","article-title":"AS relationship dataset","year":"2021","unstructured":"CAIDA. 2021. AS relationship dataset. Online.http:\/\/www.caida.org\/data\/as-relationships\/. (2021).","journal-title":"Online."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2020.106584"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2018.8622598"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2021 IEEE 29th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP)","author":"Dong Yutao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yutao Dong, Qing Li, Richard O. Sinnott, Yong Jiang, and Shutao Xia. 2021. ISP self-operated BGP anomaly detection based on weakly supervised learning. In 2021 IEEE 29th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP). IEEE, 1\u201311."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2020 IEEE 28th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP)","author":"Galm\u00e9s Miquel Ferriol","year":"2020","unstructured":"Miquel Ferriol Galm\u00e9s, Roger Coll Aumatell, Albert Cabellos-Aparicio, Shoushou Ren, Xinpeng Wei, and Bingyang Liu. 2020. Preventing route leaks using a decentralized approach: An experimental evaluation. In 2020 IEEE 28th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP). IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/90.974527"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","volume-title":"NDSS","author":"Gilad Yossi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yossi Gilad, Avichai Cohen, Amir Herzberg, Michael Schapira, and Haya Shulman. 2016. Are we there yet? On RPKI\u2019s deployment and security. In NDSS."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2567561.2567566"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","article-title":"ROAchain: Securing route origin authorization with blockchain for inter-domain routing","author":"He Guobiao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Guobiao He, Wei Su, Shuai Gao, Jiarui Yue, and Sajal K. Das. 2020. ROAchain: Securing route origin authorization with blockchain for inter-domain routing. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management (2020).","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","article-title":"Defending against BGP man-in-the-middle attacks","author":"Hepner Clint","year":"2009","unstructured":"Clint Hepner and Earl Zmijewski. 2009. Defending against BGP man-in-the-middle attacks. Talk at BlackHat (2009).","journal-title":"Talk at BlackHat"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","first-page":"302","volume-title":"2021 2nd Information Communication Technologies Conference (ICTC)","author":"Hou Dongkun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dongkun Hou, Jie Zhang, Ka Lok Man, Jieming Ma, and Zitian Peng. 2021. A systematic literature review of blockchain-based federated learning: Architectures, applications and issues. In 2021 2nd Information Communication Technologies Conference (ICTC). IEEE, 302\u2013307."},{"issue":"8","key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","first-page":"54","article-title":"Study on BGP route leak","volume":"2","author":"Jia Jia","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jia Jia, Zhi-wei Yan, Guang-gang Geng, and Jin Jian. 2016. Study on BGP route leak. Chinese Journal of Network and Information Security 2, 8 (2016), 54\u201361.","journal-title":"Chinese Journal of Network and Information Security"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","first-page":"581","volume-title":"16th  \\(\\lbrace\\) USENIX \\(\\rbrace\\)  Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation ( \\(\\lbrace\\) NSDI \\(\\rbrace\\)  19)","author":"Jin Yuchen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yuchen Jin, Colin Scott, Amogh Dhamdhere, Vasileios Giotsas, Arvind Krishnamurthy, and Scott Shenker. 2019. Stable and practical \\(\\lbrace\\) AS \\(\\rbrace\\) relationship inference with ProbLink. In 16th \\(\\lbrace\\) USENIX \\(\\rbrace\\) Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation ( \\(\\lbrace\\) NSDI \\(\\rbrace\\) 19). 581\u2013598."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","first-page":"266","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ACM Internet Measurement Conference","author":"Jin Zitong","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zitong Jin, Xingang Shi, Yan Yang, Xia Yin, Zhiliang Wang, and Jianping Wu. 2020. TopoScope: Recover AS relationships from fragmentary observations. In Proceedings of the ACM Internet Measurement Conference. 266\u2013280."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4842-2766-4_7","volume-title":"Deep Learning with Python","author":"Ketkar Nikhil","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nikhil Ketkar. 2017. Introduction to Keras. In Deep Learning with Python. Springer, 97\u2013111."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","article-title":"Adam: A method for stochastic optimization","author":"Kingma Diederik P.","year":"2014","unstructured":"Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Ba. 2014. Adam: A method for stochastic optimization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980 (2014).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/BCCA50787.2020.9274451","volume-title":"2020 Second International Conference on Blockchain Computing and Applications (BCCA)","author":"Korkmaz Caner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Caner Korkmaz, Halil Eralp Kocas, Ahmet Uysal, Ahmed Masry, Oznur Ozkasap, and Baris Akgun. 2020. Chain FL: Decentralized federated machine learning via blockchain. In 2020 Second International Conference on Blockchain Computing and Applications (BCCA). IEEE, 140\u2013146."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3122009.3122026"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_23_2","article-title":"RFC 6480: An infrastructure to support secure Internet routing","author":"Lepinski Matt","year":"2012","unstructured":"Matt Lepinski and S. Kent. 2012. RFC 6480: An infrastructure to support secure Internet routing. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) (2012).","journal-title":"Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_2","first-page":"313","volume-title":"International Conference on Security and Privacy in Communication Systems","author":"Li Song","year":"2015","unstructured":"Song Li, Haixin Duan, Zhiliang Wang, and Xing Li. 2015. Route leaks identification by detecting routing loops. In International Conference on Security and Privacy in Communication Systems. Springer, 313\u2013329."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.08.020"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2000263"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2942190"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2504730.2504735"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_2","article-title":"Routing leak briefly takes down Google","author":"Madory Doug","year":"2015","unstructured":"Doug Madory. 2015. Routing leak briefly takes down Google. Online.https:\/\/blogs.oracle.com\/internetintelligence\/routing-leak-briefly-takes-down-google. (2015).","journal-title":"Online."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_30_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2019 20th Asia-Pacific Network Operations and Management Symposium (APNOMS)","author":"Majeed Umer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Umer Majeed and Choong Seon Hong. 2019. FLchain: Federated learning via MEC-enabled blockchain network. In 2019 20th Asia-Pacific Network Operations and Management Symposium (APNOMS). IEEE, 1\u20134."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2021.23080","article-title":"Flexsealing BGP against route leaks: Peerlock active measurement and analysis","author":"McDaniel Tyler","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tyler McDaniel, Jared M. Smith, and Max Schuchard. 2021. Flexsealing BGP against route leaks: Peerlock active measurement and analysis. Proceedings of the 28th Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS 2021) (2021).","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 28th Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS 2021)"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_32_2","first-page":"1273","volume-title":"Artificial Intelligence and Statistics","author":"McMahan Brendan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brendan McMahan, Eider Moore, Daniel Ramage, Seth Hampson, and Blaise Aguera y Arcas. 2017. Communication-efficient learning of deep networks from decentralized data. In Artificial Intelligence and Statistics. PMLR, 1273\u20131282."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.107835"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_34_2","volume-title":"ICML","author":"Nair Vinod","year":"2010","unstructured":"Vinod Nair and Geoffrey E. Hinton. 2010. Rectified linear units improve restricted Boltzmann machines. In ICML."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_35_2","article-title":"The raft consensus algorithm","author":"Ongaro Diego","year":"2015","unstructured":"Diego Ongaro and John Ousterhout. 2015. The raft consensus algorithm. Online, https:\/\/raft.github.io\/. (2015).","journal-title":"Online"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3487552.3487825"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/Trustcom.2015.357"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_38_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"NOMS 2020-2020 IEEE\/IFIP Network Operations and Management Symposium","author":"Shapira Tal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tal Shapira and Yuval Shavitt. 2020. Unveiling the type of relationship between autonomous systems using deep learning. In NOMS 2020-2020 IEEE\/IFIP Network Operations and Management Symposium. IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2020.3044223"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_2","article-title":"Major route leak by AS28548","author":"Siddiqui Aftab","year":"2021","unstructured":"Aftab Siddiqui. 2021. Major route leak by AS28548. Online. https:\/\/www.manrs.org\/2021\/02\/major-route-leak-by-as28548-another-bgp-optimizer\/. (2021).","journal-title":"Online"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2015.02.029"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_2","article-title":"Everyday practical BGP filtering","author":"Snijders Job","year":"2016","unstructured":"Job Snijders. 2016. Everyday practical BGP filtering. Online.https:\/\/peerlock.net. (2016).","journal-title":"Online."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_2","article-title":"NTT peer locking","author":"Snijders Job","year":"2016","unstructured":"Job Snijders. 2016. NTT peer locking. Online.http:\/\/instituut.net\/job\/peerlock_manual.pdf. (2016).","journal-title":"Online."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_44_2","article-title":"Methods for detection and mitigation of BGP route leaks","author":"Sriram Kotikalapudi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kotikalapudi Sriram, Doug Montgomery, Brian Dickson, Keyur Patel, and Andrei Robachevsky. 2017. Methods for detection and mitigation of BGP route leaks. draft-ietf-idr-route-leak-detection-mitigation-06 (2017).","journal-title":"draft-ietf-idr-route-leak-detection-mitigation-06"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_2","article-title":"Problem definition and classification of BGP route leaks","author":"Sriram Kotikalapudi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kotikalapudi Sriram, Doug Montgomery, D. McPherson, Eric Osterweil, and Brian Dickson. 2016. Problem definition and classification of BGP route leaks. RFC 7908 (2016).","journal-title":"RFC 7908"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_46_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Metrics for evaluating 3D medical image segmentation: Analysis, selection, and tool","volume":"15","author":"Taha Abdel Aziz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Abdel Aziz Taha and Allan Hanbury. 2015. Metrics for evaluating 3D medical image segmentation: Analysis, selection, and tool. BMC Medical Imaging 15, 1 (2015), 1\u201328.","journal-title":"BMC Medical Imaging"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/tdsc.2019.2952332"},{"issue":"10","key":"e_1_3_1_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2012.11.019","article-title":"Sign what you really care about\u2013secure BGP AS-paths efficiently","volume":"57","author":"Xiang Yang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yang Xiang, Xingang Shi, Jianping Wu, Zhiliang Wang, and Xia Yin. 2013. Sign what you really care about\u2013secure BGP AS-paths efficiently. Computer Networks 57, 10 (2013), 2250\u20132265.","journal-title":"Computer Networks"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_2","first-page":"264","volume-title":"2021 IEEE International Conference on Information Communication and Software Engineering (ICICSE)","author":"Yue Jiarui","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jiarui Yue, Yajuan Qin, Shuai Gao, Wei Su, Guobiao He, and Ningchun Liu. 2021. A privacy-preserving route leak protection mechanism based on blockchain. In 2021 IEEE International Conference on Information Communication and Software Engineering (ICICSE). IEEE, 264\u2013269."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2020 IEEE 28th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP)","author":"Zhang Qiong","year":"2020","unstructured":"Qiong Zhang, Paparao Palacharla, Motoyoshi Sekiya, Junichi Suga, and Toru Katagiri. 2020. A blockchain based protocol for federated learning. In 2020 IEEE 28th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP). IEEE, 1\u20132."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1504\/IJWGS.2018.095647"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Internet Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3561051","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3561051","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T17:49:15Z","timestamp":1750182555000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3561051"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,28]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3561051"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3561051","relation":{},"ISSN":["1533-5399","1557-6051"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1533-5399","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-6051","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-04-08","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-08-29","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-02-23","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}