{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T10:04:02Z","timestamp":1766484242714,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"GROUP","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,29]],"date-time":"2022-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"NSF","award":["2030521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2030521"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"NSF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21-46756"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-46756"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Today's disinformation campaigns may use deceptively altered photographs to promote a false narrative. In some cases, viewers may be unaware of the alteration and thus may more readily accept the promoted narrative. In this work, we consider whether this effect can be lessened by explaining to the viewer how an image has been manipulated. To explore this idea, we conduct a two-part study. We started with a survey (n=113) to examine whether users are indeed bad at identifying manipulated images. Our result validated this conjecture as participants performed barely better than random guessing (60% accuracy). Then we explored our main hypothesis in a second survey (n=543). We selected manipulated images circulated on the Internet that pictured political figures and opinion influencers. Participants were divided into three groups to view the original (unaltered) images, the manipulated images, and the manipulated images with explanations, respectively. Each image represents a single case study and is evaluated independently of the others. We find that simply highlighting and explaining the manipulation to users was not always effective. When it was effective, it did help to make users less agreeing with the intended messages behind the manipulation. However, surprisingly, the explanation also had an opposite (e.g.,negative) effect on users' feeling\/sentiment toward the subjects in the images. Based on these results, we discuss open-ended questions which could serve as the basis for future research in this area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3567558","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,29]],"date-time":"2022-12-29T21:22:29Z","timestamp":1672348949000},"page":"1-22","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Explaining Why Fake Photos are Fake"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0942-1533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margie","family":"Ruffin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8910-8979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4527-9749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kirill","family":"Levchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3308560.3316494"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"David Gertler Rand, and Gordon Pennycook","author":"Bago Bence","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bence Bago , David Gertler Rand, and Gordon Pennycook . 2019 . Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. Journal of Experimental Psychology ( 2019). Bence Bago, David Gertler Rand, and Gordon Pennycook. 2019. Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. Journal of Experimental Psychology (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","volume-title":"Vohs","author":"Baumeister Roy F.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Roy F. Baumeister , Ellen Bratslavsky , Catrin Finkenauer , and Kathleen C . Vohs . 2001 . Bad is stronger than good. SAGE Journals ( 2001). Roy F. Baumeister, Ellen Bratslavsky, Catrin Finkenauer, and Kathleen C. Vohs. 2001. Bad is stronger than good. SAGE Journals (2001)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2909827.2930786"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2018.2825953"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","unstructured":"Claretta Bellamy. 2021. Support for Black Lives Matter movement is declining according to new poll. https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/news\/nbcblk\/support-black-lives-matter-movement-declining-according-new-poll-rcna5746  Claretta Bellamy. 2021. Support for Black Lives Matter movement is declining according to new poll. https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/news\/nbcblk\/support-black-lives-matter-movement-declining-according-new-poll-rcna5746"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","series-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science","volume-title":"Convolutional neural networks for multimedia sentiment analysis","author":"Cai Guoyong","unstructured":"Guoyong Cai and Binbin Xia . 2015. Convolutional neural networks for multimedia sentiment analysis . In Lecture Notes in Computer Science . Springer Verlag . Guoyong Cai and Binbin Xia. 2015. Convolutional neural networks for multimedia sentiment analysis. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer Verlag."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","volume-title":"From pixels to sentiment: Fine-tuning CNNs for visual sentiment prediction. Image and Vision Computing","author":"Campos V\u00ed","year":"2017","unstructured":"V\u00ed ctor Campos , Brendan Jou , and Xavier Gir\u00f3 -i Nieto . 2017. From pixels to sentiment: Fine-tuning CNNs for visual sentiment prediction. Image and Vision Computing ( 2017 ). arxiv: 1604.03489 V\u00ed ctor Campos, Brendan Jou, and Xavier Gir\u00f3 -i Nieto. 2017. From pixels to sentiment: Fine-tuning CNNs for visual sentiment prediction. Image and Vision Computing (2017). arxiv: 1604.03489"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","volume-title":"Computer Vision for Political Science Research : A Study of Online Protest Images. New Faces in Political Methodology IX","author":"Casas Andreu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Andreu Casas and Nora Webb Williams . 2017. Computer Vision for Political Science Research : A Study of Online Protest Images. New Faces in Political Methodology IX ( 2017 ). Andreu Casas and Nora Webb Williams. 2017. Computer Vision for Political Science Research : A Study of Online Protest Images. New Faces in Political Methodology IX (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","volume-title":"Generalizing from Survey Experiments Conducted on Mechanical Turk: A Replication Approach. Political Science Research and Methods","author":"Coppock Alexander","year":"2019","unstructured":"Alexander Coppock . 2019. Generalizing from Survey Experiments Conducted on Mechanical Turk: A Replication Approach. Political Science Research and Methods ( 2019 ). Alexander Coppock. 2019. Generalizing from Survey Experiments Conducted on Mechanical Turk: A Replication Approach. Political Science Research and Methods (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","unstructured":"Joan Donovan. 2021. What is Media Manipulation? https:\/\/just-infras.illinois.edu\/speaker-series\/joan-donovan\/  Joan Donovan. 2021. What is Media Manipulation? https:\/\/just-infras.illinois.edu\/speaker-series\/joan-donovan\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","unstructured":"Facebook. 2016. Capturing attention in feed: The science behind effective video creative. Facebook IQ. https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/business\/news\/insights\/capturing-attention-feed-video-creative  Facebook. 2016. Capturing attention in feed: The science behind effective video creative. Facebook IQ. https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/business\/news\/insights\/capturing-attention-feed-video-creative"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-9713.2006.00197.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"A Survey of Image Forgery Detection","author":"Hany Farid","year":"2009","unstructured":"Farid Hany . 2009. A Survey of Image Forgery Detection . IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (March 2009 ). Farid Hany. 2009. A Survey of Image Forgery Detection. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (March 2009)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2487788.2488033"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","volume-title":"Hauser and Norbert Schwarz","author":"David","year":"2016","unstructured":"David J. Hauser and Norbert Schwarz . 2016 . Attentive Turkers : MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants. Behavior Research Methods ( 2016). David J. Hauser and Norbert Schwarz. 2016. Attentive Turkers: MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants. Behavior Research Methods (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"The PS-Battles Dataset -- an Image Collection for Image Manipulation Detection. CoRR","author":"Heller Silvan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Silvan Heller , Luca Rossetto , and Heiko Schuldt . 2018. The PS-Battles Dataset -- an Image Collection for Image Manipulation Detection. CoRR , Vol. abs\/ 1804 .04866 ( 2018 ). Silvan Heller, Luca Rossetto, and Heiko Schuldt. 2018. The PS-Battles Dataset -- an Image Collection for Image Manipulation Detection. CoRR , Vol. abs\/1804.04866 (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","volume-title":"The Hoaxy Misinformation and Fact-Checking Diffusion Network. In International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM).","author":"Hui Pik-Mai","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pik-Mai Hui , Chengcheng Shao , Alessandro Flammini , Filippo Menczer , and Giovanni Luca Ciampaglia . 2018 . The Hoaxy Misinformation and Fact-Checking Diffusion Network. In International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM). Pik-Mai Hui, Chengcheng Shao, Alessandro Flammini, Filippo Menczer, and Giovanni Luca Ciampaglia. 2018. The Hoaxy Misinformation and Fact-Checking Diffusion Network. In International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Sources of the Continued Influence Effect: When Misinformation in Memory Affects Later Inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition","author":"Johnson Hollyn","year":"1994","unstructured":"Hollyn Johnson and Colleen Seifert . 1994. Sources of the Continued Influence Effect: When Misinformation in Memory Affects Later Inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition ( 1994 ). Hollyn Johnson and Colleen Seifert. 1994. Sources of the Continued Influence Effect: When Misinformation in Memory Affects Later Inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (1994)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"Daniel Kahneman. 2011. Thinking fast and slow. Farrar Straus and Giroux.  Daniel Kahneman. 2011. Thinking fast and slow. Farrar Straus and Giroux."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","volume-title":"USENIX Security Symposium.","author":"Kaiser Ben","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ben Kaiser , Jerry Wei , Eli Lucherini , Kevin Lee , J. Nathan Matias , and Jonathan Mayer . 2021 . Adapting Security Warnings to Counter Online Disinformation . In USENIX Security Symposium. Ben Kaiser, Jerry Wei, Eli Lucherini, Kevin Lee, J. Nathan Matias, and Jonathan Mayer. 2021. Adapting Security Warnings to Counter Online Disinformation. In USENIX Security Symposium."},{"volume-title":"Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI).","author":"Kasra Mona","key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"Mona Kasra , Cuihua Shen , and James F . O'Brien. 2018. Seeing is believing: How people fail to identify fake images on the web . In Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI). Mona Kasra, Cuihua Shen, and James F. O'Brien. 2018. Seeing is believing: How people fail to identify fake images on the web. In Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"Exposing photo manipulation with inconsistent shadows. ACM Transactions on Graphics","author":"Kee Eric","year":"2013","unstructured":"Eric Kee , James O'brien , and Hany Farid . 2013. Exposing photo manipulation with inconsistent shadows. ACM Transactions on Graphics ( 2013 ). Eric Kee, James O'brien, and Hany Farid. 2013. Exposing photo manipulation with inconsistent shadows. ACM Transactions on Graphics (2013)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","volume-title":"Picture Perfect: The Direct Effect of Manipulated Instagram Photos on Body Image in Adolescent Girls. Media Psychology (jan","author":"Kleemans Mariska","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mariska Kleemans , Serena Daalmans , Ilana Carbaat , and Doeschka Ansch\u00fc tz. 2018 . Picture Perfect: The Direct Effect of Manipulated Instagram Photos on Body Image in Adolescent Girls. Media Psychology (jan 2018). Mariska Kleemans, Serena Daalmans, Ilana Carbaat, and Doeschka Ansch\u00fc tz. 2018. Picture Perfect: The Direct Effect of Manipulated Instagram Photos on Body Image in Adolescent Girls. Media Psychology (jan 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","first-page":"39","article-title":"International affective picture system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings","volume":"1","author":"Lang Peter J","year":"1997","unstructured":"Peter J Lang , Margaret M Bradley , Bruce N Cuthbert , 1997 . International affective picture system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings . NIMH Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention , Vol. 1 , 39 -- 58 (1997), 3. Peter J Lang, Margaret M Bradley, Bruce N Cuthbert, et al. 1997. International affective picture system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings. NIMH Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, Vol. 1, 39--58 (1997), 3.","journal-title":"NIMH Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","volume-title":"Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? An Empirical Study of Image Content and Social Media Engagement. Journal of Marketing Research (nov","author":"Li Yiyi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yiyi Li and Ying Xie . 2020. Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? An Empirical Study of Image Content and Social Media Engagement. Journal of Marketing Research (nov 2020 ). Yiyi Li and Ying Xie. 2020. Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? An Empirical Study of Image Content and Social Media Engagement. Journal of Marketing Research (nov 2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","unstructured":"Meta Journalism Project. 2021. How Facebook's third-party fact-checking program works.  Meta Journalism Project. 2021. How Facebook's third-party fact-checking program works."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2009.04.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.2.2.175"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","volume-title":"Watson","author":"Nightingale Sophie J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Sophie J. Nightingale , Kimberley A. Wade , and Derrick G . Watson . 2017 . Can people identify original and manipulated photos of real-world scenes? Cognitive Research : Principles and Implications ( dec 2017). Sophie J. Nightingale, Kimberley A. Wade, and Derrick G. Watson. 2017. Can people identify original and manipulated photos of real-world scenes? Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications (dec 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","volume-title":"IMD2020: A Large-Scale Annotated Dataset Tailored for Detecting MockupManipulated Images. In IEEE Winter Applications of Computer Vision Workshops (WACVW).","author":"Novozamsky Adam","year":"2020","unstructured":"Adam Novozamsky , Babak Mahdian , and Stanislav Saic . 2020 . IMD2020: A Large-Scale Annotated Dataset Tailored for Detecting MockupManipulated Images. In IEEE Winter Applications of Computer Vision Workshops (WACVW). Adam Novozamsky, Babak Mahdian, and Stanislav Saic. 2020. IMD2020: A Large-Scale Annotated Dataset Tailored for Detecting MockupManipulated Images. In IEEE Winter Applications of Computer Vision Workshops (WACVW)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11109-010-9112-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.06.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3308558.3313688"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","volume-title":"Rosenberg and Patrick Mccafferty","author":"Shawn","year":"1987","unstructured":"Shawn W. Rosenberg and Patrick Mccafferty . 1987 . The Image and the Vote : Manipulating Voters' Preferences. Public Opinion Quarterly , Vol. 51 , 1 (01 1987), 31--47. Shawn W. Rosenberg and Patrick Mccafferty. 1987. The Image and the Vote: Manipulating Voters' Preferences. Public Opinion Quarterly , Vol. 51, 1 (01 1987), 31--47."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","unstructured":"Twitter Inc. 2021. Permanent suspension of @realDonaldTrump. https:\/\/blog.twitter.com\/en_us\/topics\/company\/2020\/suspension.  Twitter Inc. 2021. Permanent suspension of @realDonaldTrump. https:\/\/blog.twitter.com\/en_us\/topics\/company\/2020\/suspension."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650219854600"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","volume-title":"Understanding the Use of Fauxtography on Social Media. In The International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM).","author":"Wang Yuping","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yuping Wang , Fatemeh Tahmasbi , Jeremy Blackburn , Barry Bradlyn , Emiliano De Cristofaro , David Magerman , Savvas Zannettou , and Gianluca Stringhini . 2021 . Understanding the Use of Fauxtography on Social Media. In The International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM). Yuping Wang, Fatemeh Tahmasbi, Jeremy Blackburn, Barry Bradlyn, Emiliano De Cristofaro, David Magerman, Savvas Zannettou, and Gianluca Stringhini. 2021. Understanding the Use of Fauxtography on Social Media. In The International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","volume-title":"Political Behavior (Dec","author":"Wood Thomas","year":"2017","unstructured":"Thomas Wood and Ethan Porter . 2017. The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes' steadfast factual adherence. Forthcoming , Political Behavior (Dec 2017 ). Thomas Wood and Ethan Porter. 2017. The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes' steadfast factual adherence. Forthcoming, Political Behavior (Dec 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3308560.3316495"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3567558","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3567558","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3567558","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T22:43:47Z","timestamp":1750286627000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3567558"}},"subtitle":["Does It Work?"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"GROUP","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3567558"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3567558","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-0142"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2573-0142"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-12-29","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}