{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T17:20:52Z","timestamp":1782840052469,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]],"date-time":"2023-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687219200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hong Kong Innovation and Technology Commission","award":["ITS\/216\/19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITS\/216\/19"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007567","name":"City University of Hong Kong","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["9440242,9678187"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["9440242,9678187"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007567","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62002023, 62002239"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62002023, 62002239"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Interdisciplinary Research and Application for Data Science, BNU-HKBU United International College","award":["2022B1212010006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022B1212010006"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Higher Education Upgrading Plan","award":["UIC R0400001-22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIC R0400001-22"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Higher Education Key Platform and Research Project","award":["2020KQNCX100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020KQNCX100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Reconfigurable Technol. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>CRYSTALS-Dilithium is a lattice-based post-quantum digital signature scheme that is resistant to attacks by quantum computers and has been selected to be standardized in the NIST post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization process. However, the speed performance and design flexibility of the Dilithium still need to be evaluated. This article presents a high-performance software\/hardware co-design of CRYSTALS-Dilithium based on the NIST PQC round-3 parameters. High-speed pipelined hardware modules for NTT\/INTT, point-wise multiplication\/addition, and for SHAKE are included in the design to accelerate the time-consuming operations in Dilithium. All hardware modules are parameterized, thus allowing full support of runtime configuration to increase versatility. Moreover, the proposed software\/hardware architecture and tight operating workflows reduce the data transmission overhead between the processor and other hardware modules. The hardware accelerator is implemented with a reconfigurable logic on FPGA and is integrated with the high-performance ARM Cortex-A9 processor in the Xilinx Zynq Architecture. We measure the performance of the software\/hardware system for Dilithium in NIST security levels 2, 3, and 5. Compared to pure software implementations, we achieve 8.7\u201312.5 times speedup in Key generation, 6.3\u20137.3 times speedup in Sign, and 9.1\u201312.2 times speedup in Verify operations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3569456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T13:26:43Z","timestamp":1666704403000},"page":"1-28","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["High-performance and Configurable SW\/HW Co-design of Post-quantum Signature CRYSTALS-Dilithium"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7403-3081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaoyu","family":"Mao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong, China and Zhejiang Lab, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5357-7442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donglong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BNU-HKBU United International College, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8399-9467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guangyan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5192-1649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wangchen","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Lab, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1664-5108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdurrashid Ibrahim","family":"Sanka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2572-9565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c7etin Kaya","family":"Ko\u00e7","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UC Santa Barbara, USA and NUAA, China and I\u01e7d\u0131r University, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6764-0729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ray C. C.","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/237814.237838"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2724714"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","article-title":"CRYSTALS-Dilithium\u2013algorithm specifications and supporting documentation","author":"Bai S.","year":"2020","unstructured":"S. Bai, L. Ducas, E. Kiltz, T. Lepoint, V. Lyubashevsky, P. Schwabe, G. Seiler, and D. Stehle. 2020. CRYSTALS-Dilithium\u2013algorithm specifications and supporting documentation. NIST Post-quant. Cryptog. Standardiz. Round 3 (2020).","journal-title":"NIST Post-quant. Cryptog. Standardiz. 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