{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T04:09:21Z","timestamp":1750219761866,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]],"date-time":"2023-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Des. Autom. Electron. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Since finite state machines (FSMs) regulate the control flow in circuits, a computing system\u2019s security might be breached by attacking the FSM. Physical attacks are especially worrisome because they can bypass software countermeasures. For example, an attacker can gain illegal access to the sensitive states of an FSM through fault injection, leading to privilege escalation and\/or information leakage. Laser fault injection (LFI) provides one of the most effective attack vectors by enabling adversaries to precisely overturn single flip-flops states. Although conventional error correction\/detection methodologies have been employed to improve FSM resiliency, their substantial overhead makes them unattractive to circuit designers. In our prior work, a novel decision diagram-based FSM encoding scheme called PATRON was proposed to resist LFI according to attack parameters, e.g., number of simultaneous faults. Although PATRON bested traditional encodings keeping overhead minimum, it provided numerous candidates for FSM designs requiring exhaustive and manual effort to select one optimum candidate. In this article, we automatically select an optimum candidate by enhancing PATRON using linear programming (LP). First, we exploit the proportionality between dynamic power dissipation and switching activity in digital CMOS circuits. Thus, our LP objective minimizes the number of FSM bit switches per transition, for comparatively lower switching activity and hence total power consumption. Second, additional LP constraints along with incorporating the original PATRON rules, systematically enforce bidirectionality to at least two state elements per FSM transition. This bestows protection against different types of fault injection, which we capture with a new unidirectional metric. Enhanced PATRON (EP) achieves superior security at lower power consumption in average compared to PATRON, error-coding, and traditional FSM encoding on five popular benchmarks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3611669","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T12:01:27Z","timestamp":1691064087000},"page":"1-26","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhanced PATRON: Fault Injection and Power-aware FSM Encoding Through Linear Programming"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9609-212X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhtadi","family":"Choudhury","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florida, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2680-2477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minyan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florida, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4189-5860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Avinash","family":"Varna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intel Corporation, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6667-2937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elad","family":"Peer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intel Corporation, Israel"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2794-7320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenic","family":"Forte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florida, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]]},"reference":[{"unstructured":"2022. Opencores https:\/\/opencores.org\/. Retrieved from https:\/\/opencores.org\/","key":"e_1_3_2_2_2"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","DOI":"10.1109\/IOLTS.2010.5560194"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-10838-9_17","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Workshop on Information Security Applications","author":"Akdemir Kahraman D.","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kahraman D. Akdemir, Ghaith Hammouri, and Berk Sunar. 2009. Non-linear error detection for finite state machines. In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Information Security Applications. Springer, 226\u2013238."},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1109\/T-C.1973.223705","article-title":"Design of totally self-checking check circuits for m-out-of-n codes","volume":"100","author":"Anderson Douglas A.","year":"1973","unstructured":"Douglas A. Anderson and Gernot Metze. 1973. Design of totally self-checking check circuits for m-out-of-n codes. IEEE Transactions on Computers 100, 3 (1973), 263\u2013269.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Computers"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","DOI":"10.1109\/4.364440"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","first-page":"513","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Annual International Cryptology Conference","author":"Biham Eli","year":"1997","unstructured":"Eli Biham and Adi Shamir. 1997. Differential fault analysis of secret key cryptosystems. In Proceedings of the Annual International Cryptology Conference. Springer, 513\u2013525."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","first-page":"177","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI and Nanotechnology Systems","author":"Champeix Cl\u00e9ment","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cl\u00e9ment Champeix, Nicolas Borrel, Jean-Max Dutertre, Bruno Robisson, Mathieu Lisart, and Alexandre Sarafianos. 2015. SEU sensitivity and modeling using pico-second pulsed laser stimulation of a D Flip-Flop in 40 nm CMOS technology. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI and Nanotechnology Systems. IEEE, 177\u2013182."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.23919\/DATE51398.2021.9474222","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2021 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition","author":"Choudhury Muhtadi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Muhtadi Choudhury, Domenic Forte, and Shahin Tajik. 2021. PATRON: A pragmatic approach for encoding laser fault injection resistant FSMs. In Proceedings of the 2021 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition. IEEE, 569\u2013574."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop on Hardware and Architectural Support for Security and Privacy","author":"Choudhury Muhtadi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Muhtadi Choudhury, Shahin Tajik, and Domenic Forte. 2021. SPARSE: Spatially aware LFI resilient state machine encoding. In Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop on Hardware and Architectural Support for Security and Privacy. 1\u20138."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1109\/TCAD.2020.3003287","article-title":"Modeling and simulating electromagnetic fault injection","volume":"40","author":"Dumont Mathieu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mathieu Dumont, Mathieu Lisart, and Philippe Maurine. 2020. Modeling and simulating electromagnetic fault injection. IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems 40, 4 (2020), 680\u2013693.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","DOI":"10.1145\/2638555"},{"unstructured":"Markus Grassl. 2022. Bounds on the Minimum Distance of Linear Codes and Quantum Codes. Online available at Retrieved from http:\/\/www.codetables.de","key":"e_1_3_2_13_2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","first-page":"70","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design","author":"Hachtel Gary D.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Gary D. Hachtel, Mariano Hermida, Abelardo Pardo, Massimo Poncino, and Fabio Somenzi. 1994. Re-encoding sequential circuits to reduce power dissipation. In Proceedings of the IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design. IEEE Computer Society, 70\u201371."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","first-page":"247","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 40th International Conference on Computer Design","author":"Jayasena Aruna","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aruna Jayasena, Khushboo Rani, and Prabhat Mishra. 2022. Efficient finite state machine encoding for defending against laser fault injection attacks. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 40th International Conference on Computer Design. IEEE, 247\u2013254."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2004.831844"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2014 22nd International Conference on Very Large Scale Integration","year":"2014","unstructured":"R\u00e9gis Leveugle, Paolo Maistri, Pierre Vanhauwaert, F. Lu, G. Di Natale, M.-L. Flottes, B. Rouzeyre, A. Papadimitriou, D. H\u00e9ly, V. Beroulle, G. Hubert, S. De Castro, J.-M. Dutertre, A. Sarafianos, N. Boher, M. Lisart, J. Damiens, P. Candelier, and C. Tavernier. 2014. Laser-induced fault effects in security-dedicated circuits. In Proceedings of the 2014 22nd International Conference on Very Large Scale Integration. IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","first-page":"201","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Youth Conference on Information, Computing and Telecommunication","author":"Lin Xuesen","year":"2009","unstructured":"Xuesen Lin. 2009. Multi-behaviors finite state machine. In Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Youth Conference on Information, Computing and Telecommunication. IEEE, 201\u2013203."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","volume-title":"Linear and Nonlinear Programming","author":"Luenberger David G.","year":"1984","unstructured":"David G. Luenberger, Yinyu Ye, et\u00a0al. 1984. Linear and Nonlinear Programming. Vol. 2. Springer."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Workshop on Silicon Errors in Logic-System Effects","author":"Miskov-Zivanov Natasa","year":"2010","unstructured":"Natasa Miskov-Zivanov and Diana Marculescu. 2010. Modeling and analysis of ser in combinational circuits. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Silicon Errors in Logic-System Effects."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","DOI":"10.5555\/1509456.1509607"},{"unstructured":"Sikender Mohsienuddin Mohammad and Lakshmisri Surya. 2018. Security automation in information technology. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) 6 (2018).","key":"e_1_3_2_22_2"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1109\/TCAD.2018.2834396","article-title":"Security-aware FSM design flow for identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities to fault attacks","volume":"38","author":"Nahiyan Adib","year":"2018","unstructured":"Adib Nahiyan, Farimah Farahmandi, Prabhat Mishra, Domenic Forte, and Mark Tehranipoor. 2018. Security-aware FSM design flow for identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities to fault attacks. IEEE Transactions on Computer-aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems 38, 6 (2018), 1003\u20131016.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 53rd ACM\/EDAC\/IEEE Design Automation Conference","author":"Nahiyan Adib","year":"2016","unstructured":"Adib Nahiyan, Kan Xiao, Kun Yang, Yier Jin, Domenic Forte, and Mark Tehranipoor. 2016. AVFSM: A framework for identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities in FSMs. In Proceedings of the 2016 53rd ACM\/EDAC\/IEEE Design Automation Conference. IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","first-page":"168","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition","author":"Noth Winfried","year":"1999","unstructured":"Winfried Noth and Reiner Kolla. 1999. Spanning tree based state encoding for low power dissipation. In Proceedings of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition. IEEE, 168\u2013174."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/CICC.1994.379749","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference","author":"Olson Eric","year":"1994","unstructured":"Eric Olson and S. M. Kang. 1994. State assignment for low-power FSM synthesis using genetic local search. In Proceedings of the IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference. IEEE, 140\u2013143."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/FDTC.2015.9","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2015 Workshop on Fault Diagnosis and Tolerance in Cryptography","author":"Ordas S\u00e9bastien","year":"2015","unstructured":"S\u00e9bastien Ordas, Ludovic Guillaume-Sage, and Philippe Maurine. 2015. EM injection: Fault model and locality. In Proceedings of the 2015 Workshop on Fault Diagnosis and Tolerance in Cryptography. IEEE, 3\u201313."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","DOI":"10.1007\/s13389-016-0128-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2014 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition","author":"Papadimitriou Athanasios","year":"2014","unstructured":"Athanasios Papadimitriou, David H\u00e9ly, Vincent Beroulle, Paolo Maistri, and R\u00e9gis Leveugle. 2014. A multiple fault injection methodology based on cone partitioning towards RTL modeling of laser attacks. In Proceedings of the 2014 Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition. IEEE, 1\u20134."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","DOI":"10.1145\/1687399.1687428"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","DOI":"10.1007\/s10836-018-5762-5"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jan Richter-Brockmann Pascal Sasdrich and Tim G\u00fcneysu. 2022. Revisiting fault adversary models\u2013hardware faults in theory and practice. IEEE Transactions on Computers 72 2 (2022) 572\u2013585.","key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2022.3164259"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jan Richter-Brockmann Aein Rezaei Shahmirzadi Pascal Sasdrich Amir Moradi and Tim G\u00fcneysu. 2021. Fiver\u2013robust verification of countermeasures against fault injections. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems 447\u2013473.","key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","DOI":"10.46586\/tches.v2021.i4.447-473"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","first-page":"119","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Symposium on Hardware-Oriented Security and Trust","author":"Roscian Cyril","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cyril Roscian, Jean-Max Dutertre, and Assia Tria. 2013. Frontside laser fault injection on cryptosystems-Application to the AES\u2019last round. In Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Symposium on Hardware-Oriented Security and Trust. IEEE, 119\u2013124."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1109\/FDTC.2016.16","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 Workshop on Fault Diagnosis and Tolerance in Cryptography","author":"Selmke Bodo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bodo Selmke, Johann Heyszl, and Georg Sigl. 2016. Attack on a DFA protected AES by simultaneous laser fault injections. In Proceedings of the 2016 Workshop on Fault Diagnosis and Tolerance in Cryptography. IEEE, 36\u201346."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","DOI":"10.5555\/2691365.2691401"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","DOI":"10.5555\/647883.738394"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","first-page":"2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","author":"Skorobogatov Sergei P.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Sergei P. Skorobogatov and Ross J. Anderson. 2002. Optical fault induction attacks. In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems. Springer, 2\u201312."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","first-page":"126","article-title":"Sequential circuit design for embedded cryptographic applications resilient to adversarial faults","volume":"57","author":"Sunar Berk","year":"2007","unstructured":"Berk Sunar, Gunnar Gaubatz, and Erkay Savas. 2007. Sequential circuit design for embedded cryptographic applications resilient to adversarial faults. IEEE Transactions on Computers 57, 1 (2007), 126\u2013138.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Computers"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","first-page":"40","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI and Nanotechnology Systems","author":"Tomashevich Victor","year":"2014","unstructured":"Victor Tomashevich, Yaara Neumeier, Raghavan Kumar, Osnat Keren, and Ilia Polian. 2014. Protecting cryptographic hardware against malicious attacks by nonlinear robust codes. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI and Nanotechnology Systems. IEEE, 40\u201345."},{"issue":"12","key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1109\/43.736568","article-title":"Low-power state assignment targeting two-and multilevel logic implementations","volume":"17","author":"Tsui Chi-Ying","year":"1998","unstructured":"Chi-Ying Tsui, Massoud Pedram, and Alvin M. Despain. 1998. Low-power state assignment targeting two-and multilevel logic implementations. IEEE Transactions on Computer-aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems 17, 12 (1998), 1281\u20131291.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Computer-aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","DOI":"10.1145\/224081.224112"},{"issue":"02","key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129156494000115","article-title":"SABSA: Switching-activity-based state assignment","volume":"5","author":"Washabaugh Scott","year":"1994","unstructured":"Scott Washabaugh, Paul D. Franzon, and H. Troy Nagle. 1994. SABSA: Switching-activity-based state assignment. International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems 5, 02 (1994), 203\u2013212.","journal-title":"International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","DOI":"10.1145\/1120725.1120844"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Design of Circuits and Integrated Systems","author":"Zussa Loic","year":"2012","unstructured":"Loic Zussa, Jean-Max Dutertre, Jessy Cl\u00e9diere, Bruno Robisson, Assia Tria, et\u00a0al. 2012. Investigation of timing constraints violation as a fault injection means. In Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Design of Circuits and Integrated Systems. Citeseer, 1\u20136."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Design Automation of Electronic Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3611669","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3611669","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T16:37:08Z","timestamp":1750178228000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3611669"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3611669"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3611669","relation":{},"ISSN":["1084-4309","1557-7309"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1084-4309"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1557-7309"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-11-05","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-07-24","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-10-16","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}