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Priv. Secur."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Photoelectric sensors are utilized in a range of safety-critical applications, such as medical devices and autonomous vehicles. However, the public exposure of the input channel of a photoelectric sensor makes it vulnerable to malicious inputs. Several studies have suggested possible attacks on photoelectric sensors by injecting malicious signals. While a few defense techniques have been proposed against such attacks, they could be either bypassed or used for limited purposes.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>In this study, we propose Lightbox, a novel defense system to detect sensor attacks on photoelectric sensors based on signal fingerprinting. Lightbox uses the spectrum of the received light as a feature to distinguish the attacker\u2019s malicious signals from the authentic signal, which is a signal from the sensor\u2019s light source. We evaluated Lightbox against (1) a saturation attacker, (2) a simple spoofing attacker, and (3) a sophisticated attacker who is aware of Lightbox and can combine multiple light sources to mimic the authentic light source. Lightbox achieved the overall accuracy over 99% for the saturation attacker and simple spoofing attacker, and robustness against a sophisticated attacker. We also evaluated Lightbox considering various environments such as transmission medium, background noise, and input waveform. Finally, we demonstrate the practicality of Lightbox with experiments using a single-board computer after further reducing the training time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3615867","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T12:06:02Z","timestamp":1692273962000},"page":"1-30","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Lightbox: Sensor Attack Detection for Photoelectric Sensors via Spectrum Fingerprinting"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9570-4734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dohyun","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9437-4852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mangi","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7795-0846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hocheol","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1380-2974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaehoon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6730-1893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juhwan","family":"Noh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4879-1262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongdae","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAIST, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","unstructured":"Amazon. 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