{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T16:19:56Z","timestamp":1790093996318,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]],"date-time":"2023-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006374","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61932003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61932003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006374","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Graph."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Synthesizing photorealistic 4D human head avatars from videos is essential for VR\/AR, telepresence, and video game applications. Although existing Neural Radiance Fields (NeRF)-based methods achieve high-fidelity results, the computational expense limits their use in real-time applications. To overcome this limitation, we introduce\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">BakedAvatar<\/jats:italic>\n            , a novel representation for real-time neural head avatar synthesis, deployable in a standard polygon rasterization pipeline. Our approach extracts deformable multi-layer meshes from learned isosurfaces of the head and computes expression-, pose-, and view-dependent appearances that can be baked into static textures for efficient rasterization. We thus propose a three-stage pipeline for neural head avatar synthesis, which includes learning continuous deformation, manifold, and radiance fields, extracting layered meshes and textures, and fine-tuning texture details with differential rasterization. Experimental results demonstrate that our representation generates synthesis results of comparable quality to other state-of-the-art methods while significantly reducing the inference time required. We further showcase various head avatar synthesis results from monocular videos, including view synthesis, face reenactment, expression editing, and pose editing, all at interactive frame rates on commodity devices. Source codes and demos are available on our project page.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3618399","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]],"date-time":"2023-12-05T10:20:48Z","timestamp":1701771648000},"page":"1-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["BakedAvatar: Baking Neural Fields for Real-Time Head Avatar Synthesis"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1200-3236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao-Bin","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Virtual Reality Technology and Systems, Beihang University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4102-8582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Virtual Reality Technology and Systems, Beihang University, and Zhongguancun Laboratory, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4899-2205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin-Chuan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Virtual Reality Technology and Systems, Beihang University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7072-4305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xu-Chuan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Virtual Reality Technology and Systems, Beihang University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan-Pei","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ARC Lab, Tencent PCG, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.01594"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR42600.2020.00264"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.01620"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_4_1","volume-title":"Blazeface: Sub-millisecond neural face detection on mobile gpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:1907.05047","author":"Bazarevsky Valentin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Valentin Bazarevsky, Yury Kartynnik, Andrey Vakunov, Karthik Raveendran, and Matthias Grundmann. 2019. Blazeface: Sub-millisecond neural face detection on mobile gpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:1907.05047 (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2013.249","article-title":"Faceware-house: A 3d facial expression database for visual computing","volume":"20","author":"Cao Chen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Chen Cao, Yanlin Weng, Shun Zhou, Yiying Tong, and Kun Zhou. 2013. Faceware-house: A 3d facial expression database for visual computing. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 20, 3 (2013), 413--425.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.01386"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_7_1","unstructured":"Vision. 14124--14133."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_8_1","volume-title":"Fast-SNARF: A fast deformer for articulated neural fields","author":"Chen Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xu Chen, Tianjian Jiang, Jie Song, Max Rietmann, Andreas Geiger, Michael J Black, and Otmar Hilliges. 2023b. Fast-SNARF: A fast deformer for articulated neural fields. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.01139"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.01590"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52688.2022.01041"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_12_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Learning an Animatable Detailed 3D Face Model from In-the-Wild Images. ACM Transactions on Graphics (ToG)","volume":"40","author":"Feng Yao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yao Feng, Haiwen Feng, Michael J. Black, and Timo Bolkart. 2021a. Learning an Animatable Detailed 3D Face Model from In-the-Wild Images. ACM Transactions on Graphics (ToG), Proc. SIGGRAPH 40, 4 (Aug. 2021), 88:1--88:13.","journal-title":"Proc. SIGGRAPH"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yao Feng Haiwen Feng Michael J. Black and Timo Bolkart. 2021b. Learning an Animatable Detailed 3D Face Model from In-The-Wild Images. ACM Transactions on Graphics (Proc. SIGGRAPH) 40 8. 10.1145\/3450626.3459936","DOI":"10.1145\/3450626.3459936"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52688.2022.00542"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.00854"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3550454.3555501"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.01408"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/258734.258849"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52688.2022.01810"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_20_1","volume-title":"VMesh: Hybrid Volume-Mesh Representation for Efficient View Synthesis. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.16184","author":"Guo Yuan-Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yuan-Chen Guo, Yan-Pei Cao, Chen Wang, Yu He, Ying Shan, Xiaohu Qie, and Song-Hai Zhang. 2023. VMesh: Hybrid Volume-Mesh Representation for Efficient View Synthesis. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.16184 (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.00582"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_22_1","volume-title":"Proceedings, Part II 14","author":"Johnson Justin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Justin Johnson, Alexandre Alahi, and Li Fei-Fei. 2016. Perceptual losses for real-time style transfer and super-resolution. In Computer Vision-ECCV 2016: 14th European Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, October 11--14, 2016, Proceedings, Part II 14. Springer, 694--711."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_23_1","unstructured":"jpcy. 2023. xatlas. https:\/\/github.com\/jpcy\/xatlas"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v36i1.19999"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_25_1","volume-title":"Realistic One-shot Mesh-based Head Avatars. In European Conference of Computer vision (ECCV).","author":"Khakhulin Taras","year":"2022","unstructured":"Taras Khakhulin, Vanessa Sklyarova, Victor Lempitsky, and Egor Zakharov. 2022. Realistic One-shot Mesh-based Head Avatars. In European Conference of Computer vision (ECCV)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3197517.3201283"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_27_1","volume-title":"Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization. In International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)","author":"Kingma Diederik","year":"2015","unstructured":"Diederik Kingma and Jimmy Ba. 2015. Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization. In International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR). San Diega, CA, USA."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3414685.3417861"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3130800.3130813"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_30_1","volume-title":"Efficient Neural Radiance Fields for Interactive Free-viewpoint Video. In SIGGRAPH Asia 2022 Conference Papers. 1--9.","author":"Lin Haotong","year":"2022","unstructured":"Haotong Lin, Sida Peng, Zhen Xu, Yunzhi Yan, Qing Shuai, Hujun Bao, and Xiaowei Zhou. 2022. Efficient Neural Radiance Fields for Interactive Free-viewpoint Video. In SIGGRAPH Asia 2022 Conference Papers. 1--9."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_31_1","first-page":"36762","article-title":"Devrf: Fast deformable voxel radiance fields for dynamic scenes","volume":"35","author":"Liu Jia-Wei","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jia-Wei Liu, Yan-Pei Cao, Weijia Mao, Wenqiao Zhang, David Junhao Zhang, Jussi Keppo, Ying Shan, Xiaohu Qie, and Mike Zheng Shou. 2022. Devrf: Fast deformable voxel radiance fields for dynamic scenes. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 35 (2022), 36762--36775.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_32_1","first-page":"15651","article-title":"Neural sparse voxel fields","volume":"33","author":"Liu Lingjie","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lingjie Liu, Jiatao Gu, Kyaw Zaw Lin, Tat-Seng Chua, and Christian Theobalt. 2020. Neural sparse voxel fields. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33 (2020), 15651--15663.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_33_1","volume-title":"Marching cubes: A high resolution 3D surface construction algorithm. ACM siggraph computer graphics 21, 4","author":"Lorensen William E","year":"1987","unstructured":"William E Lorensen and Harvey E Cline. 1987. Marching cubes: A high resolution 3D surface construction algorithm. ACM siggraph computer graphics 21, 4 (1987), 163--169."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58452-8_24"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3528223.3530127"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_36_1","volume-title":"Anton Kaplanyan, and Markus Steinberger.","author":"Neff Thomas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thomas Neff, Pascal Stadlbauer, Mathias Parger, Andreas Kurz, Joerg H Mueller, Chakravarty R Alla Chaitanya, Anton Kaplanyan, and Markus Steinberger. 2021. DONeRF: Towards Real-Time Rendering of Compact Neural Radiance Fields using Depth Oracle Networks. In Computer Graphics Forum, Vol. 40. Wiley Online Library, 45--59."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2022.103525"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.00554"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.00581"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3478513.3480487"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_41_1","volume-title":"Pytorch: An imperative style, high-performance deep learning library. Advances in neural information processing systems 32","author":"Paszke Adam","year":"2019","unstructured":"Adam Paszke, Sam Gross, Francisco Massa, Adam Lerer, James Bradbury, Gregory Chanan, Trevor Killeen, Zeming Lin, Natalia Gimelshein, Luca Antiga, et al. 2019. Pytorch: An imperative style, high-performance deep learning library. Advances in neural information processing systems 32 (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/AVSS.2009.58"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.01018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.01407"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3592426"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_46_1","volume-title":"First Order Motion Model for Image Animation. In Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS).","author":"Siarohin Aliaksandr","year":"2019","unstructured":"Aliaksandr Siarohin, St\u00e9phane Lathuili\u00e8re, Sergey Tulyakov, Elisa Ricci, and Nicu Sebe. 2019. First Order Motion Model for Image Animation. In Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3306346.3323035"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3592460"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_49_1","volume-title":"Single-view View Synthesis with Multiplane Images. In The IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).","author":"Tucker Richard","year":"2020","unstructured":"Richard Tucker and Noah Snavely. 2020. Single-view View Synthesis with Multiplane Images. In The IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52688.2022.01316"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3588432.3591517"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_52_1","unstructured":"Peng Wang Lingjie Liu Yuan Liu Christian Theobalt Taku Komura and Wenping Wang. 2021. NeuS: Learning Neural Implicit Surfaces by Volume Rendering for Multi-view Reconstruction. NeurIPS (2021)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2020.3023573"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.00843"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_55_1","first-page":"36188","article-title":"Anifacegan: Animatable 3d-aware face image generation for video avatars","volume":"35","author":"Wu Yue","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yue Wu, Yu Deng, Jiaolong Yang, Fangyun Wei, Qifeng Chen, and Xin Tong. 2022. Anifacegan: Animatable 3d-aware face image generation for video avatars. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 35 (2022), 36188--36201.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3588432.3591567"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_57_1","volume-title":"LatentAvatar: Learning Latent Expression Code for Expressive Neural Head Avatar. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2023 Conference Proceedings.","author":"Xu Yuelang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yuelang Xu, Hongwen Zhang, Lizhen Wang, Xiaochen Zhao, Huang Han, Qi Guojun, and Yebin Liu. 2023b. LatentAvatar: Learning Latent Expression Code for Expressive Neural Head Avatar. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2023 Conference Proceedings."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-19787-1_34"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_59_1","first-page":"4805","article-title":"Volume rendering of neural implicit surfaces","volume":"34","author":"Yariv Lior","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lior Yariv, Jiatao Gu, Yoni Kasten, and Yaron Lipman. 2021. Volume rendering of neural implicit surfaces. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 34 (2021), 4805--4815.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3588432.3591536"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV48922.2021.00570"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_62_1","volume-title":"NOFA: NeRF-based One-shot Facial Avatar Reconstruction. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2023 Conference Proceedings. 1--12","author":"Yu Wangbo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wangbo Yu, Yanbo Fan, Yong Zhang, Xuan Wang, Fei Yin, Yunpeng Bai, Yan-Pei Cao, Ying Shan, Yang Wu, Zhongqian Sun, et al. 2023. NOFA: NeRF-based One-shot Facial Avatar Reconstruction. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2023 Conference Proceedings. 1--12."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_63_1","volume-title":"Proceedings, Part XII 16","author":"Zakharov Egor","year":"2020","unstructured":"Egor Zakharov, Aleksei Ivakhnenko, Aliaksandra Shysheya, and Victor Lempitsky. 2020. Fast bi-layer neural synthesis of one-shot realistic head avatars. In Computer Vision-ECCV 2020: 16th European Conference, Glasgow, UK, August 23--28, 2020, Proceedings, Part XII 16. Springer, 524--540."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2018.00068"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_65_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 13545--13555","author":"Zheng Yufeng","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yufeng Zheng, Victoria Fern\u00e1ndez Abrevaya, Marcel C B\u00fchler, Xu Chen, Michael J Black, and Otmar Hilliges. 2022. Im avatar: Implicit morphable head avatars from videos. In Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 13545--13555."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.02017"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_67_1","volume-title":"Towards Metrical Reconstruction of Human Faces. In European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV). Springer International Publishing.","author":"Zielonka Wojciech","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wojciech Zielonka, Timo Bolkart, and Justus Thies. 2022. Towards Metrical Reconstruction of Human Faces. In European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV). Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.00444"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Graphics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3618399","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3618399","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T10:51:48Z","timestamp":1755773508000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3618399"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3618399"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3618399","relation":{},"ISSN":["0730-0301","1557-7368"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0730-0301","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7368","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-12-05","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}