{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T18:52:07Z","timestamp":1774291927101,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,16]],"date-time":"2023-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702684800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Alibaba Research Intern Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Quantum Comput."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Scaling bottlenecks the making of digital quantum computers, posing challenges from both the quantum and the classical components. We present a classical architecture to cope with a comprehensive list of the latter challenges\n            <jats:italic>all at once<\/jats:italic>\n            , and implement it fully in an end-to-end system by integrating a multi-core RISC-V CPU with our in-house control electronics.\n          <\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>Our architecture enables scalable, high-precision control of large quantum processors and accommodates evolving requirements of quantum hardware. A central feature is a microarchitecture executing quantum operations in parallel on arbitrary predefined qubit groups. Another key feature is a reconfigurable quantum instruction set that supports easy qubit re-grouping and instructions extensions.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>As a demonstration, we implement the widely-studied surface code quantum computing workflow, which is instructive for being demanding on both the controllers and the integrated classical computation. Our design, for the first time, reduces instruction issuing and transmission costs to constants, which do not scale with the number of qubits, without adding any overheads in decoding or dispatching.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            Our system uses a dedicated general-purpose CPU for both qubit control and classical computation, including syndrome decoding. Implementing recent theoretical proposals as decoding firmware that parallelizes general inner decoders, we can achieve unprecedented decoding capabilities of up to distances 47 and 67 with the currently available systems-on-chips for physical error rate\n            <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n            = 0.001 and\n            <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n            = 0.0001, respectively, all in just 1 \u03bcs.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3626199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T14:52:00Z","timestamp":1695999120000},"page":"1-24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Classical Architecture for Digital Quantum Computers"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0000-7101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3665-8667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xing","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2570-2426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7466-8033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cupjin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5854-5340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linghang","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5531-8986","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoyang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7728-5380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dawei","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9905-7972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haishan","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4091-9754","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yihuai","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1806-9391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaotong","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7744-2976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liwei","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4676-6401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhe","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3144-013X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yueming","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5440-7128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, P.R. China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5523-6166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaoyun","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4529-1679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weifeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0869-9782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Intelligence, Alibaba Group, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9365-776X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianxin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum Laboratory, DAMO Academy, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05434-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03588-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1666-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francesco Battistel Christopher Chamberland Kauser Johar Ramon W. J. Overwater Fabio Sebastiano Luka Skoric Yosuke Ueno and Muhammad Usman. 2023. Real-time decoding for fault-tolerant quantum computing: Progress challenges and outlook. arXiv:2303.00054","DOI":"10.1088\/2399-1984\/aceba6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.4.020303"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRC2020.2020.00011"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.3.010331"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","volume-title":"IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM\u201916)","author":"Charbon E.","year":"2016","unstructured":"E. Charbon, F. Sebastiano, A. Vladimirescu, H. Homulle, S. Visser, L. Song, and R. M. Incandela. 2016. Cryo-CMOS for quantum computing. In IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM\u201916). IEEE, 13\u20135."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCA45697.2020.00016"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/ARXIV.2009.08513"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3503222.3507707"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","article-title":"A scalable decoder micro-architecture for fault-tolerant quantum computing","author":"Das Poulami","year":"2020","unstructured":"Poulami Das, Christopher A. Pattison, Srilatha Manne, Douglas Carmean, Krysta Svore, Moinuddin Qureshi, and Nicolas Delfosse. 2020. A scalable decoder micro-architecture for fault-tolerant quantum computing. arXiv preprint (2020). arXiv:2001.06598","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","first-page":"259","volume-title":"IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA\u201922)","author":"Das Poulami","year":"2022","unstructured":"Poulami Das, Christopher A. Pattison, Srilatha Manne, Douglas M. Carmean, Krysta M. Svore, Moinuddin Qureshi, and Nicolas Delfosse. 2022. AFS: Accurate, fast, and scalable error-decoding for fault-tolerant quantum computers. In IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA\u201922). IEEE, 259\u2013273."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22331\/q-2021-12-02-595"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MM.2022.3140674"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03928-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26421\/QIC15.1-2-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCA.2019.00040"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/17\/1\/013042"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","unstructured":"Oscar Higgott and Craig Gidney. 2022. PyMatching v2. Retrieved from https:\/\/github.com\/oscarhiggott\/PyMatching"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCA45697.2020.00053"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.3.024010"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/14\/12\/123011"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","article-title":"Interface circuit for TIA\/EIA-644 (LVDS)","author":"Instruments Texas","year":"2002","unstructured":"Texas Instruments. 2002. Interface circuit for TIA\/EIA-644 (LVDS). SLLA038B, Application notes, Texas Instruments. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/an\/slla038b\/slla038b.pdf","journal-title":"SLLA038B, Application notes, Texas Instruments"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22331\/q-2019-03-05-128"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2019.2938436"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41567-021-01423-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2010.2096792"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0065011"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-017-0039-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","unstructured":"Riverlane. 2022. Deltaflow. Decode Technical White Paper. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.riverlane.com\/media\/nz2dvqmi\/deltaflow_decode_technical_white_paper_september_2022.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","unstructured":"SiFive Development Team. 2022. SiFive Performance P650. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.sifive.com\/cores\/performance-p650"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","article-title":"Parallel window decoding enables scalable fault tolerant quantum computation","author":"Skoric Luka","year":"2022","unstructured":"Luka Skoric, Dan E. Browne, Kenton M. Barnes, Neil I. Gillespie, and Earl T. Campbell. 2022. Parallel window decoding enables scalable fault tolerant quantum computation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2209.08552 (2022).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2209.08552"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","article-title":"Scalable surface code decoders with parallelization in time","author":"Tan Xinyu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Xinyu Tan, Fang Zhang, Rui Chao, Yaoyun Shi, and Jianxin Chen. 2022. Scalable surface code decoders with parallelization in time. arXiv preprint arXiv:2209.09219 (2022).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2209.09219"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3123939.3123940"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.87.307"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/DAC18074.2021.9586326"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","unstructured":"Yosuke Ueno Masaaki Kondo Masamitsu Tanaka Yasunari Suzuki and Yutaka Tabuchi. 2022. NEO-QEC: Neural network enhanced online superconducting decoder for surface codes. (2022). arXiv:2208.05758"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.94.052325"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/QCE49297.2020.00050"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.127.180501"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0085467"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3466752.3480116"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Quantum Computing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3626199","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3626199","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T23:57:03Z","timestamp":1750291023000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3626199"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,16]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3626199"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3626199","relation":{},"ISSN":["2643-6809","2643-6817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2643-6809","type":"print"},{"value":"2643-6817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-06-26","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-08-28","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-12-16","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}