{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T04:44:52Z","timestamp":1766551492282,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]],"date-time":"2023-12-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701907200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Meas. Anal. Comput. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Submarine cables constitute the backbone of the Internet. However, these critical infrastructure components are vulnerable to several natural and man-made threats, and during failures, are difficult to repair in remote oceans. In spite of their crucial role, we have a limited understanding of the impact of submarine cable failures on global connectivity, particularly on the higher layers of the Internet.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>In this paper, we present Nautilus, a framework for cross-layer cartography of submarine cables and IP links. Using a corpus of public datasets and Internet cartographic techniques, Nautilus identifies IP links that are likely traversing submarine cables and maps them to one or more potential cables. Nautilus also gives each IP to cable assignment a prediction score that reflects the confidence in the mapping. Nautilus generates a mapping for 3.05 million and 1.43 million IPv4 and IPv6 links, respectively, spanning 91% of all active cables. In the absence of ground truth data, we validate Nautilus mapping using three techniques: analyzing past cable failures, using targeted traceroute measurements, and comparing with public network maps of two operators.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3626777","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T15:20:29Z","timestamp":1702394429000},"page":"1-34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Nautilus: A Framework for Cross-Layer Cartography of Submarine Cables and IP Links"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3293-1790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alagappan","family":"Ramanathan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0503-4478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sangeetha","family":"Abdu Jyothi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Irvine &amp; VMware Research, Irvine, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. 80km Stretch of Tonga Cable In Pieces From Eruption - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/80km-stretch-of-tonga-cable-in-pieces-from-eruption\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. A map of all the underwater cables that connect the internet - Vox. https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2015\/3\/13\/8204655\/submarine-cables-internet. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. AAE-1 cable cut causes widespread outages in Europe East Africa Middle East and South Asia - DCD. https:\/\/www.datacenterdynamics.com\/en\/news\/aae-1-cable-cut-causes-widespread-outages-in-europe-east-africa-middle-east-and-south-asia\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. AS Rank: A ranking of the largest Autonomous Systems (AS) in the Internet. https:\/\/asrank.caida.org\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. AS2org API Doc. https:\/\/api.data.caida.org\/as2org\/v1\/doc. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Beyond Triple Invisibility: Do Submarine Data Cables Require Better Security? | IPI Global Observatory. https:\/\/theglobalobservatory.org\/2021\/09\/beyond-triple-invisibility-do-submarine-data-cables-require-better-security\/. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. CAIDA. https:\/\/www.caida.org\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Comprehensive IP address data IP geolocation API and database - IPinfo.io. https:\/\/ipinfo.io\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Coral Sea Cable System Shunt Fault Repair Rescheduled - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/coral-sea-cable-system-shunt-fault-repair-rescheduled\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Fault Reported on Sea-MeWe-4 - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/fault-reported-on-sea-mewe-4\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Free IP Geolocation API and Accurate IP Geolocation Database. https:\/\/ipgeolocation.io\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. GitHub - telegeography\/www.submarinecablemap.com: Comprehensive interactive map of the world's major operating and planned submarine cable systems and landing stations updated frequently. https:\/\/github.com\/telegeography\/www.submarinecablemap.com. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Internet Outage in Indonesia Due to Submarine Cable Cut - SubTel Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/internet-outage-in-indonesia-due-to-submarine-cable-cut\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. IP Address to IP Location and Proxy Information | IP2Location. https:\/\/www.ip2location.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. IP Geolocation and Online Fraud Prevention | MaxMind. https:\/\/www.maxmind.com\/en\/home. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. IP Geolocation API | 20B Requests Served - ipdata. https:\/\/ipdata.co\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. IP Geolocation API & Free Address Database | DB-IP. https:\/\/db-ip.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. IP to ASN mapping - Team Cymru. https:\/\/team-cymru.com\/community-services\/ip-asn-mapping\/#whois. ([n.d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. ipapi - IP Address Lookup and Geolocation API. https:\/\/ipapi.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. ipapi - IP Address Lookup and Geolocation API | No SignUp. https:\/\/ipapi.co\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Map | Tata Communications. https:\/\/www.tatacommunications.com\/map\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Measurements | RIPE Atlas. https:\/\/atlas.ripe.net\/measurements\/#tab-traceroute. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Network Map. https:\/\/www.cogentco.com\/en\/network\/network-map. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. PeeringDB. https:\/\/www.peeringdb.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Protecting undersea cables must be made a national security priority. https:\/\/www.defensenews.com\/opinion\/commentary\/2020\/07\/01\/protecting-undersea-cables-must-be-made-a-national-security-priority\/. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/09\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. RIPE IPmap. https:\/\/ipmap.ripe.net\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Routinator. https:\/\/rpki-validator.ripe.net\/ui\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Ship's anchor caused cut in Internet cable. https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/id\/wbna23068571. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Ship's Anchor Slices Through Three Undersea Internet Cables. https:\/\/www.popularmechanics.com\/technology\/infrastructure\/a24064\/anchor-cuts-undersea-internet-cables\/. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Submarine Cable FAQs. https:\/\/www2.telegeography.com\/submarine-cable-faqs-frequently-asked-questions. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Submarine Cable Map. https:\/\/www.submarinecablemap.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Svalbard Suffers Power Fault On Subsea Fiber Cable - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/svalbard-suffers-power-fault-on-subsea-fiber-cable\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The CAIDA Macroscopic Internet Topology Data Kit - ITDK-2022-02. https:\/\/www.caida.org\/catalog\/datasets\/internet-topology-data-kit\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The CAIDA UCSD IPv4 Routed \/24 Topology Dataset - 03--13--2022-03--23--2022. https:\/\/www.caida.org\/catalog\/datasets\/ipv4_routed_24_topology_dataset\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The CAIDA UCSD IPv6 Routed \/48 Topology Dataset - 03--13--2022-03--23--2022. https:\/\/www.caida.org\/catalog\/datasets\/ipv6_routed_48_topology_dataset\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The Internet Routing Registry - RADb. https:\/\/www.radb.net\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The Trusted Source for IP Address Data (geolocation and threat) - Ipregistry. https:\/\/ipregistry.co\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Tonga Cable Successfully Repaired - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/tonga-cable-successfully-repaired\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Tsunami earthquake damage undersea fiber-optic cables in Japan | Laser Focus World. https:\/\/www.laserfocusworld.com\/fiber-optics\/article\/16562059\/tsunami-earthquake-damage-undersea-fiberoptic-cables-in-japan. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Undersea Internet cables undergoing repairs after typhoon | Computerworld. https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2527025\/undersea-internet-cables-undergoing-repairs-after-typhoon.html. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Vietnam's AAG Repair Complete - SubTel Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/vietnams-aag-repair-complete\/. ([n.d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Vietnam's AAG Repair Complete - Submarine Telecoms Forum. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/vietnams-aag-repair-complete\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Vodafone Global Infrastructure Map. http:\/\/globalnetworkmap.vodafone.com\/. ([n. d.])."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Your slow Internet just got worse: Several undersea cables damaged after typhoons in Southeast Asia | Coconuts. https:\/\/coconuts.co\/manila\/news\/slow-internet-just-got-worse-several-undersea-cables-damaged-typhoons-southeast-asia\/. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1151659.1159937"},{"volume-title":"Walter. In Proceedings of the 10th ACM SIGCOMM conference on Internet measurement. 199--205","key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","unstructured":"2010. Towards an AS-to-organization Map, author=Cai, Xue and Heidemann, John and Krishnamurthy, Balachander and Willinger, Walter. In Proceedings of the 10th ACM SIGCOMM conference on Internet measurement. 199--205."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/NSW.2013.6609200"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3517745.3561443"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3286062.3286074"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2079360.2079364"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","volume-title":"Gregory Laughlin, Bruce M Maggs, and Ankit Singla.","author":"Bozkurt Ilker Nadi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ilker Nadi Bozkurt, Waqar Aqeel, Debopam Bhattacherjee, Balakrishnan Chandrasekaran, Philip Brighten Godfrey, Gregory Laughlin, Bruce M Maggs, and Ankit Singla. 2018. Dissecting Latency in the Internet's Fiber Infrastructure. arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.10737 (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1644893.1644923"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2079360.2079362"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2007.4444750"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2185376.2185388"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2785956.2787499"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2491159.2491170"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","volume-title":"et al","author":"Ester Martin","year":"1996","unstructured":"Martin Ester, Hans-Peter Kriegel, J\u00f6rg Sander, Xiaowei Xu, et al . 1996. A density-based algorithm for discovering clusters in large spatial databases with noise.. In kdd, Vol. 96. 226--231."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2008.ECP.466"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","unstructured":"SubTel Forum. [n. d.]. PNG Earthquake Causing Multiple Cable Disruptions. https:\/\/subtelforum.com\/png-earthquake-causing-multiple-cable-disruptions\/. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3131365.3131380"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2000.832534"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","volume-title":"8th International Workshop on Traffic Monitoring and Analysis (TMA).","author":"Grailet Jean-Francois","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jean-Francois Grailet, Fabien Tarissan, and Benoit Donnet. 2016. TreeNET: Discovering and connecting subnets. In 8th International Workshop on Traffic Monitoring and Analysis (TMA)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2009.2014227"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3452296.3472916"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1672308.1672318"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","volume-title":"iffinder,\" a tool for mapping interfaces to routers. See http:\/\/www.caida.org\/tools\/measurement\/iffinder","author":"Keys Ken","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ken Keys. 2020. iffinder,\" a tool for mapping interfaces to routers. See http:\/\/www.caida.org\/tools\/measurement\/iffinder (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2012.2198887"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2011.111002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3419394.3423633"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","article-title":"New algorithms for efficient high-dimensional nonparametric classification","volume":"7","author":"Liu Ting","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ting Liu, Andrew W Moore, Alexander Gray, and Claire Cardie. 2006. New algorithms for efficient high-dimensional nonparametric classification. Journal of Machine Learning Research 7, 6 (2006).","journal-title":"Journal of Machine Learning Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2987443.2987467"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th symposium on Operating systems design and implementation. 367--380","author":"Madhyastha Harsha V","year":"2006","unstructured":"Harsha V Madhyastha, Tomas Isdal, Michael Piatek, Colin Dixon, Thomas Anderson, Arvind Krishnamurthy, and Arun Venkataramani. 2006. iPlane: An information plane for distributed services. In Proceedings of the 7th symposium on Operating systems design and implementation. 367--380."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1111322.1111328"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Network Traffic Measurement and Analysis Conference.","author":"Mani Sathiya Kumaran","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sathiya Kumaran Mani, Matthew Nance Hall, Ramakrishnan Durairajan, and Paul Barford. 2020. Characteristics of metro fiber deployments in the us. In Proceedings of the Network Traffic Measurement and Analysis Conference."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1298306.1298333"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/863955.863996"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference","author":"Marder Alexander","year":"2018","unstructured":"Alexander Marder, Matthew Luckie, Amogh Dhamdhere, Bradley Huffaker, KC Claffy, and Jonathan M Smith. 2018. Pushing the boundaries with bdrmapIT: mapping router ownership at internet scale. In Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference 2018. 56--69."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2987443.2987468"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2014.2376520"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1384529.1375482"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12334-4_9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2011.111006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2010.5466699"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_85_1","volume-title":"Virtues of the Haversine. Sky and telescope 68, 2","author":"Sinnott Roger W","year":"1984","unstructured":"Roger W Sinnott. 1984. Virtues of the Haversine. Sky and telescope 68, 2 (1984), 158."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1130\/G34477.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2012.6195646"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1879141.1879188"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_89_1","volume-title":"30th IEEE International Performance Computing and Communications Conference. IEEE, 1--8.","author":"Engin Tozal M","year":"2011","unstructured":"M Engin Tozal and Kamil Sarac. 2011. Subnet level network topology mapping. In 30th IEEE International Performance Computing and Communications Conference. IEEE, 1--8."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_90_1","volume-title":"Internet topology research redux. ACM SIGCOMM eBook: Recent Advances in Networking","author":"Willinger Walter","year":"2013","unstructured":"Walter Willinger and Matthew Roughan. 2013. Internet topology research redux. ACM SIGCOMM eBook: Recent Advances in Networking (2013)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_91_1","unstructured":"Network World. [n. d.]. Taiwan earthquake damages undersea Internet cables. https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2203714\/taiwan-earthquake-damages-undersea-internet-cables.html. ([n. d.]). (Accessed on 02\/11\/2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-00975-4_4"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Measurement and Analysis of Computing Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3626777","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3626777","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]],"date-time":"2025-08-23T00:13:44Z","timestamp":1755908024000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3626777"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3626777"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3626777","relation":{},"ISSN":["2476-1249"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2476-1249"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-12-12","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}