{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T20:34:29Z","timestamp":1770150869214,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]],"date-time":"2024-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Digit. Gov.: Res. Pract."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>What information should and can be transparent for artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms? This article examines the socio-technical and legal perspectives of transparency in relation to algorithmic decision-making in public administration. We show how transparency in AI can be understood in light of the various technologies and the challenges one may encounter. Despite some first steps in that direction, there exists so far no mature standard for documenting AI models. From a legal perspective, this article examined the applicable freedom of information (FOI) regimes across different jurisdictions, with a particular focus on Denmark and other Scandinavian countries. Despite notable differences, our findings show that the FOI regimes generally only grant access to existing documents, and that access can be denied on the basis of the wide proprietary interests and internal documents exemptions. This is why we ultimately conclude that the European data-protection framework and the proposed EU AI Act \u2014 with their far-reaching duties to document the functioning of AI systems \u2014 provide promising new avenues for research and insights into transparency in AI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3632753","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,20]],"date-time":"2023-11-20T11:54:21Z","timestamp":1700481261000},"page":"1-15","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["The Right to Transparency in Public Governance: Freedom of Information and the Use of Artificial Intelligence by Public Agencies"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8486-8752","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henrik Palmer","family":"Olsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Law, Copenhagen S, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7435-5563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas Troels","family":"Hildebrandt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Copenhagen, Department of Computer Science, Copenhagen \u00d8, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9284-964X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cornelius","family":"Wiesener","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Law, Copenhagen S, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7798-3989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthias Smed","family":"Larsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Law, Copenhagen S, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1456-2939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asbj\u00f8rn William Ammitzb\u00f8ll","family":"Fl\u00fcgge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Copenhagen, Department of Computer Science, Copenhagen \u00d8, Denmark"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","first-page":"100","article-title":"Transparency's ideological drift","volume":"128","author":"Pozen David E.","year":"2018","unstructured":"David E. 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ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 42. https:\/\/www.iso.org\/committee\/6794475.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_37_2","unstructured":"Dansk Standard. https:\/\/www.ds.dk\/da\/udvalg\/kategorier\/it\/kunstig-intelligens"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_38_2","unstructured":"Dansk Standard. 2020. DS\/PAS 2500-1:2020 Kunstig intelligens \u2013 Del 1: Gennemsigtighed. https:\/\/webshop.ds.dk\/da-dk\/standard\/ds-pas-2500-12020"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_2","unstructured":"Dansk Standard. 2020. DS\/PAS 2500-2:2020 Kunstig intelligens \u2013 Del 2: Beslutningsst\u00f8ttende anvendelse i offentlig sagsbehandling. https:\/\/webshop.ds.dk\/standard\/M336737\/ds-pas-2500-2-2020"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_2","unstructured":"Dansk Standard. 2023. DS\/PAS 2500-3:2023 Kunstig intelligens \u2013 Del 3: Bias. https:\/\/webshop.ds.dk\/standard\/M360243\/ds-pas-2500-3-2023"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"OpenAI. 2023. GPT-4 Technical Report. 10.48550\/arXiv.2303.08774","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2303.08774"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445432"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1609\/aimag.v38i3.2741"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300760"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0162243915589635"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_46_2","article-title":"Automating inequality \u2013 how high-tech tools profile, police, and punish the poor","author":"Eubanks Virgina","year":"2018","unstructured":"Virgina Eubanks. 2018. Automating inequality \u2013 how high-tech tools profile, police, and punish the poor. St. Martin's Press.","journal-title":"St. Martin's Press"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3449114"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3419249.3420149"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3476089"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300271"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300831"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3359284"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3411764.3445385"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300724"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3174156"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3313831.3376590"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_57_2","volume-title":"UNESCO","author":"Mendel Toby","year":"2008","unstructured":"Toby Mendel. 2008. Freedom of information: A comparative legal survey (2nd ed.). UNESCO. https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000134191"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190228613.013.97"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_59_2","first-page":"1265","article-title":"Access to algorithms","volume":"88","author":"Bloch-Wehba Hannah","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hannah Bloch-Wehba. 2019. Access to algorithms. Fordham Law Review 88, 4 (2019), 1265\u20131314. https:\/\/ir.lawnet.fordham.edu\/flr\/vol88\/iss4\/2","journal-title":"Fordham Law Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_60_2","first-page":"885","article-title":"The opacity of transparency","volume":"91","year":"2006","unstructured":"It should be noted, though, that FOI laws in the United States have also been criticized for failing to provide transparency, because they are too abstract, thereby generally allowing too much room for manoeuvring around these rules. See especially: Mark Fenster. 2006. The opacity of transparency. Iowa Law Review 91 (March 2006), 885\u2013949. https:\/\/scholarship.law.ufl.edu\/facultypub\/46","journal-title":"Iowa Law Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_61_2","unstructured":"Danish FOI Act (Offentlighedsloven). 2020. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/lta\/2020\/145"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ojls\/gqu011"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_63_2","unstructured":"Mohammad Ashan. 2020. Offentlighedsloven: Med kommentarer (2nd ed.). DJ\u00d8F Forlag. https:\/\/www.jurabibliotek.dk\/view\/book\/9788771984484\/9788771984484.xml"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_64_2","unstructured":"John Vogter. 1998. Offentlighedsloven med kommentarer (3rd ed.). DJ\u00d8F Forlag. https:\/\/www.jurabibliotek.dk\/view\/book\/9788771984781\/9788771984781.xml"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_65_2","unstructured":"Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman. Statement (in Danish only) FOB 2005 621\u2013700. https:\/\/root.ombudsmanden.dk\/gammelt-hovedsite\/aarsberetning\/beretning2005\/FOB2005.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_66_2","unstructured":"Norwegian FOI Act (Offentleglova). 2006. \u00a7 9. https:\/\/lovdata.no\/dokument\/NLE\/lov\/2006-05-19-16. Danish FOI Act (Offentlighedsloven). 2020. \u00a7 11. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/lta\/2020\/145"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_67_2","first-page":"75","volume-title":"Digital forvaltning: Udvikling af sagsbehandlende l\u00f8sninger","year":"2019","unstructured":"This area remains relatively underexplored; see Hanne-Marie Motzfeldt. 2019. Grundl\u00e6ggende krav til den digitale forvaltning. In Digital forvaltning: Udvikling af sagsbehandlende l\u00f8sninger, Hanne Marie Motzfeldt and Azad Taheri Abkenar (Eds.). DJ\u00d8F Forlag. 75\u201390. https:\/\/www.jurabibliotek.dk\/view\/book\/9788771983579\/9788771983579.xml"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_68_2","unstructured":"Danish FOI Act (Offentlighedsloven). 2020. \u00a7 30 (2) (author's translation). https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/lta\/2020\/145"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_69_2","unstructured":"Norwegian FOI Act (Offentleglova). 2006. \u00a7 13 (1). https:\/\/lovdata.no\/dokument\/NLE\/lov\/2006-05-19-16. Swedish Freedom of the Press Act (Tryckfrihetsforordningen). 1949. Chapter 2 \u00a7 2. https:\/\/www.riksdagen.se\/sv\/dokument-och-lagar\/dokument\/svensk-forfattningssamling\/tryckfrihetsforordning-1949105_sfs-1949-105"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_70_2","unstructured":"However documents provided by a foreign government under an agreement or expectation of secrecy might be exempt under the foreign policy provision. Danish FOI Act (Offentlighedsloven). 2020. \u00a7 32 (1). https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/lta\/2020\/145. Norwegian FOI Act (Offentleglova). 2006. \u00a7 20 (1) (b). https:\/\/lovdata.no\/dokument\/NLE\/lov\/2006-05-19-16. We do not go deeper into the foreign policy exemption in this article."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_71_2","unstructured":"Lisbeth Adserballe. 2020. Lovbekendtg\u00f8relse 2020-02-24 nr. 145 om offentlighed i forvaltningen. Karnovs Lovsamling. https:\/\/pro.karnovgroup.dk\/document\/7000848864\/1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_72_2","unstructured":"Nils E. \u00d8y. 2015. Kommentarbok til offentleglova. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. https:\/\/cappelendamm.no\/_kommentarbok-til-offentleglova-nils-e-oy-9788202405847"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_73_2","unstructured":"Kristian Brandt et al. 2018. Offentleglova: Lovkommentar. Universitetsforlaget. https:\/\/www.universitetsforlaget.no\/offentleglova-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_74_2","unstructured":"Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman Statement (in Danish only) case no 16\/02596 9 February 2017. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/accn\/Y20170911958"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_75_2","unstructured":"Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman Statement (in Danish only) case no 17\/00491 15 September 2017. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/retsinfo\/2017\/9944"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_76_2","unstructured":"Danish FOI Act (Offentlighedsloven). 2020. \u00a7 26 (5). https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/lta\/2020\/145. Norwegian FOI Act (Offentleglova). 2006. \u00a7 14 (1) (a). https:\/\/lovdata.no\/dokument\/NLE\/lov\/2006-05-19-16"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_77_2","unstructured":"Azad Taheri Abkenar. 2019. Transparens. In Digital forvaltning: Udvikling af sagsbehandlende l\u00f8sninger Hanne Marie Motzfeldt and Azad Taheri Abkenar (Eds.). DJ\u00d8F Forlag. 305\u2013345. https:\/\/www.jurabibliotek.dk\/view\/book\/9788771983579\/9788771983579.xml"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_78_2","unstructured":"Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman Statement (in Danish only) FOB 2001.527 2 October 2002. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/fob\/2001\/527"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_79_2","unstructured":"Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman Statement (in Danish only) FOB 1989.241. https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/eli\/fob\/1989\/241"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_80_2","unstructured":"Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union Nice 7 December 2000. https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:12012P\/TXT. Deirdre Curtin and Joana Mendes. 2014. Article 42. In The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights: A Commentary Steve Peers Tamara Hervey Jeff Kenner and Angela Ward (Eds.). Hart Publishing. 1099-1119. https:\/\/www.bloomsbury.com\/uk\/eu-charter-of-fundamental-rights-9781509933501. The accession of Sweden and Finland in 1995 where the right had existed for much longer than in most other EU member status was key in recognising this right at the EU level."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_81_2","unstructured":"Court of Justice of the European Union Joined Cases T-109\/05 and T-444\/05 NLG v Commission 24 May 2011 \u00a7 129. https:\/\/curia.europa.eu\/juris\/liste.jsf?language=en&num=T-109\/05."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_82_2","unstructured":"European Court of Human Rights Magyar Helsinki Bizotts\u00e1g v. Hungary Application No. 18030\/11 8 November 2016 \u00a7 117\u2013170. https:\/\/hudoc.echr.coe.int\/fre?i=001-167828"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_83_2","unstructured":"Council of Europe Convention on Access to Official Documents Troms\u00f8 18 June 2009. https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=205. See in particular: Explanatory Report \u00a7 11. https:\/\/rm.coe.int\/16800d3836"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_84_2","unstructured":"EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 2016\/679 4 May 2016. Articles 13\u201315. https:\/\/gdpr-info.eu"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4337\/9781786438515.00007"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_86_2","unstructured":"Article 9. See also: Explanatory Report. https:\/\/rm.coe.int\/16808ac91a"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_87_2","unstructured":"WP29 Guidelines on Automated Individual Decision-Making and Profiling for the Purposes of Regulation 2016\/679 WP251rev.01 Revised and Adopted on 6 February 2018. https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/newsroom\/article29\/item-detail.cfm?item_id=612053"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_88_2","unstructured":"Court of Justice of the European Union Conclusions of Advocate Generale Priit Pikam\u00e4e Case C634\/21 Schufa Holding 16 March 2023. https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/en\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:62021CC0634"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_89_2","unstructured":"Amendments adopted by the European Parliament on 14 June 2023 on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts (COM(2021)0206 \u2013 C9-0146\/2021 \u20132021\/0106(COD)). https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/doceo\/document\/TA-9-2023-0236_EN.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_90_2","unstructured":"In the proposed Article 3 \u2018user\u2019 or \u2018deployer\u2019 is defined as \u2018\u2026 any natural or legal person public authority agency or other body using an AI system under its authority except where the AI system is used in the course of a personal non-professional activity\u2019."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_91_2","unstructured":"It should also be noted that both exemptions equally apply under Article 42 EU Charter of Fundamental Rights."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_92_2","unstructured":"Article 51(1) sets out that: \u2018Before placing on the market or putting into service a high-risk AI system referred to in Article 6(2) the provider or where applicable the authorised representative shall register that system in the EU database referred to in Article 60 in accordance with Article 60(2)\u2019. Article 51(2) introduces a similar requirement for public users: \u2018Before putting into service or using a high-risk AI system in accordance with Article 6(2) the following categories of deployers shall register the use of that AI system in the EU database referred to in Article 60: a) deployers who are public authorities or Union institutions bodies offices or agencies or deployers acting on their behalf\u2019. Article 60 sets out that: \u2018The Commission shall in collaboration with the Member States set up and maintain a public EU database containing information referred to in paragraphs 2 and 2a concerning high-risk AI systems referred to in Article 6(2) which are registered in accordance with Article 51\u2019."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_93_2","volume-title":"The AI act Should be Technology-Neutral","year":"2023","unstructured":"Centre for Data Innovation. 2023. The AI act Should be Technology-Neutral. Patrick Grady (2023). https:\/\/datainnovation.org\/2023\/01\/the-ai-act-should-be-technology-neutral"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_94_2","article-title":"Street-level bureaucracy: The dilemmas of the individual in public service","author":"Lipsky Michael","year":"1983","unstructured":"Michael Lipsky. 1983. Street-level bureaucracy: The dilemmas of the individual in public service. Russell Sage Foundation. https:\/\/www.russellsage.org\/publications\/street-level-bureaucracy","journal-title":"Russell Sage Foundation"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0088-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14763\/2020.2.1469"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0048-x"}],"container-title":["Digital Government: Research and Practice"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3632753","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3632753","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T22:51:04Z","timestamp":1750287064000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3632753"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3632753"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3632753","relation":{},"ISSN":["2691-199X","2639-0175"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2691-199X","type":"print"},{"value":"2639-0175","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-06-30","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-10-12","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-03-12","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}