{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T05:03:17Z","timestamp":1750309397272,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,13]],"date-time":"2024-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CNS-2226888 and CCF-2007159"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CNS-2226888 and CCF-2007159"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Sen. Netw."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Optical wireless communication (OWC) shows great potential due to its broad spectrum and the exceptional intensity switching speed of LEDs. Under poor conditions, most OWC systems switch from complex and more error prone high-order modulation schemes to more robust On-Off Keying (OOK) modulation defined in the IEEE OWC standard. This paper presents LiFOD, a high-speed indoor OOK-based OWC system with fine-grained dimming support. While ensuring fine-grained dimming, LiFOD remarkably achieves robust communication at up to 400 Kbps at a distance of 6 meters. This is the first time that the data rate has improved via OWC dimming in comparison to the previous approaches that consider trading off dimming and communication. LiFOD makes two key technical contributions. First, LiFOD utilizes Compensation Symbols (CS) as a reliable side-channel to represent bit patterns dynamically and improve throughput. We firstly design greedy-based bit pattern mining. Then we propose 2D feature enhancement via YOLO model for real-time bit pattern mining. Second, LiFOD synchronously redesigns optical symbols and CS relocation schemes for fine-grained dimming and robust decoding. Experiments on low-cost Beaglebone prototypes with commercial LED lamps and the photodiode (PD) demonstrate that LiFOD significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art system with 2.1\u00d7 throughput on the SIGCOMM17 data-trace.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3643814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]],"date-time":"2024-02-13T13:51:25Z","timestamp":1707832285000},"page":"1-24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Exploiting Fine-grained Dimming with Improved LiFi Throughput"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7392-3477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8315-6654","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Mariani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2861-8438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7381-8095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matt W.","family":"Mutka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","article-title":"CeilingTalk: Lightweight indoor broadcast through LED-camera communication","author":"Yang Yanbing","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yanbing Yang, Jie Hao, and Jun Luo. 2017. CeilingTalk: Lightweight indoor broadcast through LED-camera communication. IEEE TMC (2017).","journal-title":"IEEE TMC"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2019.8737575"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2973750.2973772"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2021.3058296"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Energy. 2022. Lighting Choices to Save You Money. (2022)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3117811.3117820"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2019.8737573"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2716281.2836097"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2018.8486209"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICNP49622.2020.9259396"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2999572.2999584"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/325\/1\/012013"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3300061.3345436"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2019.8737550"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3372224.3419187"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3426746.3434051"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SECON55815.2022.9918579"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3495243.3517019"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2023 IEEE 24th International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM)","author":"Zhang Xiao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xiao Zhang, Griffin Klevering, and Li Xiao. 2023. PoseFly: On-site pose parsing of swarming drones via 4-in-1 optical camera communication. In 2023 IEEE 24th International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM). IEEE, 1\u201310."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","article-title":"Boosting optical camera communication via 2D rolling blocks","author":"Zhang Xiao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xiao Zhang, Griffin Klevering, James Mariani, Li Xiao, and Matt W. Mutka. 2023. Boosting optical camera communication via 2D rolling blocks. Proceedings of IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Quality of Service (2023).","journal-title":"Proceedings of IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Quality of Service"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","article-title":"RoFin: 3D hand pose reconstructing via 2D rolling fingertips","author":"Zhang Xiao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xiao Zhang, Griffin Klevering, Juexing Wang, Li Xiao, and Tianxing Li. 2023. RoFin: 3D hand pose reconstructing via 2D rolling fingertips. Proceedings of 21st ACM International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services (2023).","journal-title":"Proceedings of 21st ACM International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3594718"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3560905.3568063"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_25_2","unstructured":"2019. IEEE standard for local and metropolitan area networks\u2013part 15.7: Short-range optical wireless communications. IEEE Std 802.15.7 (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3143361.3149824"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_2","volume-title":"SECON","author":"Huang Pei","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pei Huang, Jun Huang, and Li Xiao. 2016. Exploiting modulation scheme diversity in multicarrier wireless networks. In SECON."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2018.2868816"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_2","first-page":"81","volume-title":"2020 Third ISEA Conference on Security and Privacy (ISEA-ISAP)","author":"Muraleedharan N.","unstructured":"N. Muraleedharan, Anna Thomas, S. Indu, and B. S. Bindhumadhava. A traffic monitoring and policy enforcement framework for HTTP. In 2020 Third ISEA Conference on Security and Privacy (ISEA-ISAP). IEEE, 81\u201386."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2968219.2968523"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_1_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2017.2771223","article-title":"A novel hybrid dimming control scheme for visible light communications","volume":"9","author":"Yang Yang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yang Yang, Zhimin Zeng, Julian Cheng, and Caili Guo. 2017. A novel hybrid dimming control scheme for visible light communications. IEEE Photonics Journal 9, 6 (2017), 1\u201312.","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.030254"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2015.7096282"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2004.11.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2007.34"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2015.2510021"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3447993.3483262"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2016.7524511"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_2","article-title":"SmartVLC: Co-designing smart lighting and communication for visible light networks","author":"Wu Hongjia","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hongjia Wu, Qing Wang, Jie Xiong, and Marco Zuniga. 2019. SmartVLC: Co-designing smart lighting and communication for visible light networks. Transactions on Mobile Computing (2019).","journal-title":"Transactions on Mobile Computing"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2742647.2742651"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2015.2469285"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_2","unstructured":"CIE. 1931. Chromaticity Diagram. (1931)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2789168.2790110"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3117811.3117821"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_2","volume-title":"2019 IEEE 5th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT)","author":"Galisteo Ander","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ander Galisteo, Diego Juara, and Domenico Giustiniano. 2019. Research in visible light communication systems with OpenVLC1. 3. In 2019 IEEE 5th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT). IEEE."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3341302.3342091"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.4.000865"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2018.2870874"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2015.7096283"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.1900388"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LSENS.2021.3126054"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_52_2","unstructured":"CAIDA UCSD. 2017. SIGCOMM\u201917 Anonymized Internet Traces. (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2018.8377176"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996637"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_55_2","unstructured":"CAIDA UCSD. 2019. CAIDA\u201919 Anonymized Internet Traces. (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.91"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.4154370"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14257\/ijsh.2016.10.4.10"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/joc-2019-0115"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_60_2","unstructured":"GSA. 2023. U.S. General Services Administration 6.15 Lighting. 2023."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCAS.2021.3071607"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197496"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-03822-2_5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrew R. Barron Albert Cohen Wolfgang Dahmen and Ronald A. DeVore. 2008. Approximation and Learning by Greedy Algorithms. The Annals of Statistics.","DOI":"10.1214\/009053607000000631"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3643814","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3643814","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3643814","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T00:57:46Z","timestamp":1750294666000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3643814"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,13]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3643814"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3643814","relation":{},"ISSN":["1550-4859","1550-4867"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1550-4859"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1550-4867"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-12-02","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-01-06","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-04-13","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}