{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T00:04:28Z","timestamp":1760659468769,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"ETRA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]],"date-time":"2024-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006374","name":"Malta Council for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["REP-2023-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["REP-2023-011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006374","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) are there to ensure that websites are perceivable, operable, understandable and robust across different user agents and assistive technologies. However, people who rely on eye trackers (ETs) may find that even WCAG-compliant websites are hard to access, and this is further accentuated by designs that offer little to no affordances for ET interaction. Areas with a high density of interactive elements, along with hierarchical navigation menus, such as megamenus or fly-out menus, are just two examples where ET interaction can be problematic. This paper introduces two novel interaction patterns as part of a purpose-built gaze-native web browser (Cactus), namely (a) Quadtree-based Target Selection with Secondary Confirmation and (b) Hierarchical Re-rendering of Navigation Menus. We present results from a between-subject single-blind study with 30 participants and report on metrics such as performance, perceived workload and usability, with demonstrable improvements over the state of the art.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3655608","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]],"date-time":"2024-05-28T16:00:05Z","timestamp":1716912005000},"page":"1-16","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Remapping the Document Object Model using Geometric and Hierarchical Data Structures for Efficient Eye Control"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9404-6576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Vella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of ICT, University of Malta, Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3813-2941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chris","family":"Porter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of ICT, University of Malta, Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"Advances in Design for Inclusion","author":"Arias Emmanuel","key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"Emmanuel Arias, Gustavo L\u00f3pez, Luis Quesada, and Luis Guerrero. 2016. Web Accessibility for People with Reduced Mobility: A Case Study Using Eye Tracking. In Advances in Design for Inclusion, Giuseppe Di Bucchianico and Pete Kercher (Eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, 463--473."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"SUS: A quick and dirty usability scale","volume":"189","author":"Brooke John","year":"1995","unstructured":"John Brooke. 1995. SUS: A quick and dirty usability scale. Usability Evaluation in Industry , Vol. 189 (1995), 4--7.","journal-title":"Usability Evaluation in Industry"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-021-01554-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3379157.3388929"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"HTML, and CSS. https:\/\/www.electronjs.org\/ Retrieved","author":"JS.","year":"2023","unstructured":"ElectronJS. 2019. Build cross-platform desktop apps with JavaScript, HTML, and CSS. https:\/\/www.electronjs.org\/ Retrieved October 19, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Eye Tracking: The Complete Pocket Guide. https:\/\/imotions.com\/blog\/eye-tracking\/ Retrieved","author":"Farnsworth Bryn","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bryn Farnsworth. 2019. Eye Tracking: The Complete Pocket Guide. https:\/\/imotions.com\/blog\/eye-tracking\/ Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00288933"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0096--3445.121.3.262"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195118254.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3206343.3206344"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2978577"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/123078.128728"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","volume-title":"Duchowski","author":"Juang Kevin A.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kevin A. Juang, Frank Jasen, Akshay Katrekar, Joe Ahn, and Andrew T. Duchowski. 2005. Use of Eye Movement Gestures for Web Browsing. (2005). https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:7675159"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"NASA-TLX, and the Single Ease Question After Tasks and Usability Tests. https:\/\/www.nngroup.com\/articles\/measuring-perceived-usability\/ Retrieved","author":"Laubheimer Page","year":"2023","unstructured":"Page Laubheimer. 2018. Beyond the NPS: Measuring Perceived Usability with the SUS, NASA-TLX, and the Single Ease Question After Tasks and Usability Tests. https:\/\/www.nngroup.com\/articles\/measuring-perceived-usability\/ Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Japan ALS Association. Japan ALS Association.","author":"Lund Haakon","year":"2006","unstructured":"Haakon Lund, John Paulin Hansen, Hirotaka Aoki, and Kenji Itoh. 2006. Gaze communication systems for people with ALS. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Japan ALS Association. Japan ALS Association."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978--1--4471--6392--3_3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"https:\/\/github.com\/MAMEM\/GazeTheWeb Retrieved","author":"GazeTheWeb MAMEM.","year":"2023","unstructured":"MAMEM. 2020. GazeTheWeb. https:\/\/github.com\/MAMEM\/GazeTheWeb Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3058555.3058582"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2971485.2996756"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3338844"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","volume-title":"Mega Menus Work Well for Site Navigation. https:\/\/www.nngroup.com\/articles\/mega-menus-work-well\/ Retrieved","author":"Nielsen Jakob","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jakob Nielsen and Angie Li. 2017. Mega Menus Work Well for Site Navigation. https:\/\/www.nngroup.com\/articles\/mega-menus-work-well\/ Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"volume-title":"Optikey - Full computer control and speech with your eyes. https:\/\/github.com\/OptiKey\/OptiKey\/wiki Retrieved","year":"2023","key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"Optikey. 2019. Optikey - Full computer control and speech with your eyes. https:\/\/github.com\/OptiKey\/OptiKey\/wiki Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence","author":"Papoutsaki Alexandra","year":"2016","unstructured":"Alexandra Papoutsaki, Patsorn Sangkloy, James Laskey, Nediyana Daskalova, Jeff Huang, and James Hays. 2016. Webgazer: Scalable Webcam Eye Tracking Using User Interactions. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (New York, New York, USA) (IJCAI'16). AAAI Press, 3839--3845."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","volume-title":"Eyes Only: Navigating Hypertext with Gaze. In Human-Computer Interaction -- INTERACT","author":"Penkar Abdul Moiz","year":"2013","unstructured":"Abdul Moiz Penkar, Christof Lutteroth, and Gerald Weber. 2013. Eyes Only: Navigating Hypertext with Gaze. In Human-Computer Interaction -- INTERACT 2013, Paula Kotz\u00e9, Gary Marsden, Gitte Lindgaard, Janet Wesson, and Marco Winckler (Eds.). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 153--169."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1689359.1689396"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","volume-title":"Measuring Usability with the System Usability Scale (SUS). https:\/\/measuringu.com\/sus\/ Retrieved","author":"Sauro Jeff","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jeff Sauro. 2011. Measuring Usability with the System Usability Scale (SUS). https:\/\/measuringu.com\/sus\/ Retrieved October 26, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3204493.3208338"},{"volume-title":"Investigating gaze interaction usability for web browsing. Bachelor's Dissertation","author":"Vella Daniel","key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","unstructured":"Daniel Vella. 2019. Investigating gaze interaction usability for web browsing. Bachelor's Dissertation. University of Malta, Msida. Available at https:\/\/www.um.edu.mt\/library\/oar\/handle\/123456789\/47803."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","volume-title":"User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) 2.0. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/UAAG20\/ Retrieved","author":"C.","year":"2023","unstructured":"W3C. 2015. User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) 2.0. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/UAAG20\/ Retrieved October 20, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","volume-title":"2023 a. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/WCAG21\/ Retrieved","author":"C.","year":"2023","unstructured":"W3C. 2023 a. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/WCAG21\/ Retrieved October 20, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","volume-title":"2023 b. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/WCAG22\/ Retrieved","author":"C.","year":"2023","unstructured":"W3C. 2023 b. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/WCAG22\/ Retrieved October 20, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/WAI\/ARIA\/apg\/practices\/landmark-regions\/ Retrieved","author":"Landmark Regions WAI.","year":"2023","unstructured":"WAI. 2019. Landmark Regions. https:\/\/www.w3.org\/WAI\/ARIA\/apg\/practices\/landmark-regions\/ Retrieved October 12, 2023 from"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","volume-title":"WWW '12: Proceedings of the 21st international conference on World Wide Web","author":"Wassermann Benjamin","year":"2012","unstructured":"Benjamin Wassermann, Adrian Hardt, and Gottfried Zimmermann. 2012. Generic Gaze Interaction Events for Web Browsers Using the Eye Tracker as Input Device. In WWW '12: Proceedings of the 21st international conference on World Wide Web (Lyon, France). ACM, New York, NY, USA."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3655608","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3655608","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]],"date-time":"2025-08-23T01:23:08Z","timestamp":1755912188000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3655608"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"ETRA","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3655608"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3655608","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-0142"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2573-0142"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-05-28","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}