{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T23:35:03Z","timestamp":1777419303420,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]],"date-time":"2024-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg Foundation, and the Swedish Research Council","award":["2020-03167"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-03167"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J. Hum.-Robot Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>While there is evidence that human-like characteristics in robots could benefit child-robot interaction in many ways, open questions remain about the appropriate degree of human likeness that should be implemented in robots to avoid adverse effects on acceptance and trust. This study investigates how human likeness, appearance and behavior, influence children\u2019s social and competency trust in a robot. We first designed two versions of the Furhat robot with visual and auditory human-like and machine-like cues validated in two online studies. Secondly, we created verbal behaviors where human likeness was manipulated as responsiveness regarding the robot\u2019s lexical matching. Then, 52 children (7\u201310 years old) played a storytelling game in a between-subjects experimental design. Results show that the conditions did not affect subjective trust measures. However, objective measures showed that human likeness affects trust differently. While low human-like appearance enhanced social trust, high human-like behavior improved children\u2019s acceptance of the robot\u2019s task-related suggestions. This work provides empirical evidence on manipulating facial features and behavior to control human likeness in a robot with a highly human-like morphology. We discuss the implications and importance of balancing human likeness in robot design and its impacts on task performance, as it directly impacts trust-building with children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3659062","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T13:33:42Z","timestamp":1716471222000},"page":"1-27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Balancing Human Likeness in Social Robots: Impact on Children\u2019s Lexical Alignment and Self-disclosure for Trust Assessment"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2788-1421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Calvo-Barajas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2859-185X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasia","family":"Akkuzu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2841-6791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ginevra","family":"Castellano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34584-5_9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3319502.3374817"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3434073.3444650"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.sigdial-1.57"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-009-0013-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-008-0001-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5898\/JHRI.1.2.Belpaeme"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat5954"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315663074"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2016.7745197"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pragma.2009.12.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00373-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12192"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","first-page":"165","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 29th IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN \u201920)","author":"Calvo-Barajas Natalia","year":"2020","unstructured":"Natalia Calvo-Barajas, Giulia Perugia, and Ginevra Castellano. 2020. The effects of robot\u2019s facial expressions on children\u2019s first impressions of trustworthiness. In Proceedings of the 29th IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN \u201920). IEEE, 165\u2013171."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the AISB Convention 2015","author":"Cameron David","year":"2015","unstructured":"David Cameron, Samuel Fernando, Emily Collins, Abigail Millings, Roger Moore, Amanda Sharkey, Vanessa Evers, and Tony Prescott. 2015. Presence of life-like robot expressions influences children\u2019s enjoyment of human-robot interactions in the field. In Proceedings of the AISB Convention 2015. The Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and Simulation of Behaviour, 2015."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/jeductechsoci.13.2.13"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.76.6.893"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3434073.3444677"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.267.5199.843"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.37.4.534"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4571(199009)41:6<391::AID-ASI1>3.0.CO;2-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aris.1440380105"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-021-09532-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-021-09532-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/FG.2011.5771375"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","first-page":"71","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction","author":"Elgarf Maha","year":"2022","unstructured":"Maha Elgarf, Natalia Calvo-Barajas, Patr\u00edcia Alves-Oliveira, Giulia Perugia, Ginevra Castellano, Christopher Peters, and Ana Paiva. 2022. \u201cAnd then what happens?\u201d Promoting children\u2019s verbal creativity using a robot. In Proceedings of the 2022 ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction. 71\u201379."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3536221.3556578"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0163853X.2014.977696"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00372-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9507.2006.00333.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650209351468"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","first-page":"3951","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 30th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI \u201916)","author":"Gordon Goren","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goren Gordon, Samuel Spaulding, Jacqueline Kory Westlund, Jin Joo Lee, Luke Plummer, Marayna Martinez, Madhurima Das, and Cynthia Breazeal. 2016. Affective personalization of a social robot tutor for children\u2019s second language skills. In Proceedings of the 30th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI \u201916). AAAI Press, 3951\u20133957."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"John Mordechai Gottman and William G. Graziano. 1983. How children become friends. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 48(3) 1\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1165860","DOI":"10.2307\/1165860"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00705"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2017.00027"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2015.07.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11973-1_19"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027033"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3171221.3171286"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2696454.2696457"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2019.00054"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","volume-title":"Handbook of Latent Semantic Analysis","author":"Landauer Thomas K.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Thomas K. Landauer, Danielle S. McNamara, Simon Dennis, and Walter Kintsch. 2013. Handbook of Latent Semantic Analysis. Psychology Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.5.1238"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2696454.2696481"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_39"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1071181322661147"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2818048.2820062"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2022.853665"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.02011"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1027\/2151-2604\/a000326"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1557690.1557737"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pragma.2016.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","first-page":"402","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Robotics","author":"Paetzel Maike","year":"2016","unstructured":"Maike Paetzel, Christopher Peters, Ingela Nystr\u00f6m, and Ginevra Castellano. 2016. Congruency matters - How ambiguous gender cues increase a robot\u2019s uncanniness. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Robotics. Springer, 402\u2013412."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2909824.3020245"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X04000056"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","unstructured":"Uwe D. Reichel. 2016. Entrainment analysis of categorical intonation representations. (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2015.01.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931215591327"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2559636.2559848"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","first-page":"594","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Robotics","author":"Sandygulova Anara","year":"2015","unstructured":"Anara Sandygulova and Gregory M. P. O\u2019Hare. 2015. Children\u2019s perception of synthesized voice: Robot\u2019s gender, age and accent. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Robotics. Springer, 594\u2013602."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1518701.1518783"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08351810701691123"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-020-00736-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_65_2","first-page":"641","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 29th IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN \u201920)","author":"Stower Rebecca","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rebecca Stower and Arvid Kappas. 2020. \u201cOh no, my instructions were wrong!\u201d An exploratory pilot towards children\u2019s trust in social robots. In Proceedings of the 29th IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN \u201920). IEEE, 641\u2013646."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1620853.1620905"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1979.4766902"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2559636.2559663"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3183654.3183691"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2022.3213269"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2016.1172808"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_72_2","article-title":"Encounters with kismet and cog: Children respond to relational artifacts","volume":"120","author":"Turkle Sherry","year":"2006","unstructured":"Sherry Turkle, Cynthia Breazeal, Olivia Dast\u00e9, and Brian Scassellati. 2006. Encounters with kismet and cog: Children respond to relational artifacts. Digital Media: Transformations in Human Communication 120 (2006).","journal-title":"Digital Media: Transformations in Human Communication"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12497"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/is.18052.str"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00569-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00073"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat7111"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2017.04.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00295"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3202185.3202732"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2016.7745134"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intcom.2006.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_83_2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Workshop on Affective Social Speech Signals, Grenoble","author":"Yilmazyildiz Selma","year":"2013","unstructured":"Selma Yilmazyildiz, Georgios Athanasopoulos, Georgios Patsis, Weiyi Wang, Meshia C\u00e9dric Oveneke, Lukas Latacz, Werner Verhelst, Hichem Sahli, David Henderickx, Bram Vanderborght, and E. Soetens. 2013. Voice modification for wizard-of-OZ experiments in robot\u2013child interaction. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Affective Social Speech Signals, Grenoble."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3659062","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3659062","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T23:44:14Z","timestamp":1750290254000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3659062"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3659062"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3659062","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-9522"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2573-9522","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-04-03","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-03-28","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-10-23","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}