{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T14:30:49Z","timestamp":1776090649183,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"NSF of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["61802325"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61802325"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"the Open Research Project Programme of the State Key Laboratory of Internet of Things for Smart City","award":["SKL-IoTSC(UM)-2021-2023\/ORP\/GA06\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKL-IoTSC(UM)-2021-2023\/ORP\/GA06\/2022"]}]},{"name":"the University of Macau","award":["MYRG2022-00048-IOTSC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MYRG2022-00048-IOTSC"]}]},{"name":"the Science and Technology Development Fund, Macau SAR","award":["0038\/2021\/AGJ"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0038\/2021\/AGJ"]}]},{"name":"the FuXiaQuan National Independent Innovation Demonstration Zone Collaborative Innovation Platform","award":["3502ZCQXT2021003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3502ZCQXT2021003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In contemporary campus environments, the provision of timely and efficient services is increasingly challenging due to limitations in accessibility and the complexity and openness of the environment. Existing service robots, while operational, often struggle with adaptability and dynamic task management, leading to inefficiencies. To overcome these limitations, we introduce CrowdBot, a robot management system that enhances service in campus environments. Our system leverages a hierarchical reinforcement learning-based cloud-edge hybrid scheduling framework (REDIS), for efficient online streaming task assignment and dynamic action scheduling. To verify the REDIS framework, we have developed a digital twin simulation platform, which integrates large language models and hot-swapping technology. This facilitates seamless human-robot interaction, efficient task allocation, and cost-effective execution through the reuse of robot equipment. Our comprehensive simulations corroborate the system's remarkable efficacy, demonstrating significant improvements with a 24.46% reduction in task completion times, a 9.37% decrease in travel distances, and up to a 3% savings in power usage. Additionally, the system achieves a 7.95% increase in the number of tasks completed and a 9.49% reduction in response time. Real-world case studies further affirm CrowdBot's capability to adeptly execute tasks and judiciously recycle resources, thereby offering a smart and viable solution for the streamlined management of campus services.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3659601","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,15]],"date-time":"2024-05-15T12:20:41Z","timestamp":1715775641000},"page":"1-27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["CrowdBot: An Open-Environment Robot Management System for On-Campus Services"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8371-7895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yufei","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6512-7278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenting","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6316-7519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changzhen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3724-9972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhuohan","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2444-8270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiawei","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8682-797X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junxiang","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4857-7143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhihan","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7219-2891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianyi","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Software Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0363-8904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongyi","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8691-2416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yigao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6831-0422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dingqi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Macau, Macau, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7627-8485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leye","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6608-1267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daqing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6075-796X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4554-6782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Longbiao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"R. Benjamin \"The gated community mentality \" New York Times vol. 29 2012."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40410-020-00122-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3406865.3418321"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","unstructured":"G. G. Garrido M. Dissanayake T. Sattar A. Plastropoulos and M. Hashim \"Sircaur: Safe inspection of reinforced concrete structures by autonomous robot \" in CLAWAR 2020: 23rd International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines 2020."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmp.2020.100751"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","first-page":"094","article-title":"Software crowdsourcing task allocation algorithm based on dynamic utility","volume":"7","author":"Yu D.","year":"2019","unstructured":"D. Yu, Y. Wang, and Z. Zhou, \"Software crowdsourcing task allocation algorithm based on dynamic utility,\" IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 33 094-33 106, 2019.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14778\/3407790.3407839"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","first-page":"265","volume-title":"IEEE","author":"Zhao Y.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Y. Zhao, K. Zheng, J. Guo, B. Yang, T. B. Pedersen, and C. S. Jensen, \"Fairness-aware task assignment in spatial crowdsourcing: Game-theoretic approaches,\" in 2021 IEEE 37th International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE). IEEE, 2021, pp. 265--276."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2013.03.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2006.06.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"Proximal policy optimization algorithms,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.06347","author":"Schulman J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"J. Schulman, F. Wolski, P. Dhariwal, A. Radford, and O. Klimov, \"Proximal policy optimization algorithms,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.06347, 2017."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/fi14020030"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ai chains: Transparent and controllable human-ai interaction by chaining large language model prompts,\" in Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors","author":"Wu T.","year":"2022","unstructured":"T. Wu, M. Terry, and C. J. Cai, \"Ai chains: Transparent and controllable human-ai interaction by chaining large language model prompts,\" in Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2022, pp. 1--22.","journal-title":"Computing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2020.3015750"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","first-page":"5","volume-title":"Kobe","author":"Quigley M.","year":"2009","unstructured":"M. Quigley, K. Conley, B. Gerkey, J. Faust, T. Foote, J. Leibs, R. Wheeler, A. Y. Ng et al., \"Ros: an open-source robot operating system,\" in ICRA workshop on open source software, vol. 3, no. 3.2. Kobe, Japan, 2009, p. 5."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","volume-title":"Mattar et al., \"Unity: A general platform for intelligent agents,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1809.02627","author":"Juliani A.","year":"2018","unstructured":"A. Juliani, V.-P. Berges, E. Teng, A. Cohen, J. Harper, C. Elion, C. Goy, Y. Gao, H. Henry, M. Mattar et al., \"Unity: A general platform for intelligent agents,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1809.02627, 2018."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"A personalized task allocation strategy in mobile crowdsensing for minimizing total cost,\" Sensors","author":"Gao H.","unstructured":"H. Gao and H. Zhao, \"A personalized task allocation strategy in mobile crowdsensing for minimizing total cost,\" Sensors, vol. 22, no. 7, 2022. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2751"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.suscom.2021.100608"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2955688"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","first-page":"1898","volume-title":"Distributed fuzzy semi-infinite auction based optimization for cooperative robots tasks allocation,\" in 2022 American Control Conference (ACC)","author":"Zenati A.","year":"2022","unstructured":"A. Zenati, N. Aouf, and O. Kechagias-Stamatis, \"Distributed fuzzy semi-infinite auction based optimization for cooperative robots tasks allocation,\" in 2022 American Control Conference (ACC), 2022, pp. 1898--1903."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","first-page":"49","volume-title":"On efficiency in dynamic multi-robot task allocation.\" in AIRO@ AI* IA","author":"Lujak M.","year":"2020","unstructured":"M. Lujak and M. Matezovic, \"On efficiency in dynamic multi-robot task allocation.\" in AIRO@ AI* IA, 2020, pp. 49--53."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","first-page":"245","article-title":"Delay optimization with fcfs queuing model in mobile edge computing-assisted uav swarms: A game-theoretic learning approach,\" in 2020 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP)","author":"Chen R.","year":"2020","unstructured":"R. Chen, L. Cui, Y. Zhang, J. Chen, K. Yao, Y. Yang, C. Yao, and H. Han, \"Delay optimization with fcfs queuing model in mobile edge computing-assisted uav swarms: A game-theoretic learning approach,\" in 2020 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP). IEEE, 2020, pp. 245--250.","journal-title":"IEEE"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSS.2020.2995760"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2019.06.006"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","first-page":"21","article-title":"Comparison analysis of round robin algorithm with highest response ratio next algorithm for job scheduling problems","volume":"10","author":"Benny R.","year":"2022","unstructured":"R. Benny and I. Wirawan, \"Comparison analysis of round robin algorithm with highest response ratio next algorithm for job scheduling problems,\" International Journal of Open Information Technologies, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 21-26, 2022.","journal-title":"International Journal of Open Information Technologies"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2021.3068103"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Playing atari with deep reinforcement learning,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.5602","author":"Mnih V.","year":"2013","unstructured":"V. Mnih, K. Kavukcuoglu, D. Silver, A. Graves, I. Antonoglou, D. Wierstra, and M. Riedmiller, \"Playing atari with deep reinforcement learning,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.5602, 2013."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","volume-title":"Continuous control with deep reinforcement learning,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1509.02971","author":"Lillicrap T. P.","year":"2015","unstructured":"T. P. Lillicrap, J. J. Hunt, A. Pritzel, N. Heess, T. Erez, Y. Tassa, D. Silver, and D. Wierstra, \"Continuous control with deep reinforcement learning,\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1509.02971, 2015."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3448079"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1990.126026"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2015.03.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganti Raghu Fan Lei and Hui \"Mobile crowdsensing: current state and future challenges.\" IEEE Communications Magazine 2011.","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2011.6069707"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.7402272"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2021.3110592"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","volume-title":"Robot modeling and control","author":"Spong M. W.","year":"2006","unstructured":"M. W. Spong, S. Hutchinson, M. Vidyasagar et al., Robot modeling and control. Wiley New York, 2006, vol. 3."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19361610.2021.1923365"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","first-page":"4481","volume-title":"IEEE","author":"Liu Z.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Z. Liu, B. Wu, and H. Lin, \"Coordinated robot-assisted human crowd evacuation,\" in 2018 IEEE conference on decision and control (CDC). IEEE, 2018, pp. 4481--4486."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","first-page":"833","volume-title":"IEEE","author":"K\u00e4stner L.","year":"2022","unstructured":"L. K\u00e4stner, B. Fatloun, Z. Shen, D. Gawrisch, and J. Lambrecht, \"Human-following and-guiding in crowded environments using semantic deep-reinforcement-learning for mobile service robots,\" in 2022 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). IEEE, 2022, pp. 833--839."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","first-page":"45","volume-title":"AAAI'12","author":"Ho C.-J.","year":"2012","unstructured":"C.-J. Ho and J. W. Vaughan, \"Online task assignment in crowdsourcing markets,\" in Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, ser. AAAI'12. AAAI Press, 2012, p. 45--51."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2442657.2442661"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E. P. de Freitas M. Basso A. A. S. da Silva M. R. Vizzotto and M. S. C. Corr\u00eaa \"A distributed task allocation protocol for cooperative multi-uav search and rescue systems \" in 2021 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS) 2021 pp. 909--917.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUAS51884.2021.9476740"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","volume-title":"A blockchain-based multi-unmanned aerial vehicle task processing system for situation awareness and real-time decision,\" Sustainability","author":"Chen Z.","unstructured":"Z. Chen, X. Xiong, W. Wang, Y. Xiao, and O. Alfarraj, \"A blockchain-based multi-unmanned aerial vehicle task processing system for situation awareness and real-time decision,\" Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 18, 2023. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/18\/13790"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.13189\/cea.2022.101410"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","first-page":"228","article-title":"Decision making of opening gated community considering traffic impact on environment","volume":"22","author":"Z. Y.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Z. Y. [WANG Xiao-ning, CUI Zi-yu, \"Decision making of opening gated community considering traffic impact on environment,\" Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 228-235, 2022.","journal-title":"Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0268580915578759"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","first-page":"D1","article-title":"Why china may have the most factory robots in the world by 2017","volume":"1","author":"Aeppel T.","year":"2015","unstructured":"T. Aeppel, \"Why china may have the most factory robots in the world by 2017,\" Wall Street Journal, vol. 1, p. D1, 2015.","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14672710701527378"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00992698"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1561\/2300000021"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","first-page":"1008","article-title":"Actor-critic algorithms","author":"Konda V. R.","year":"2000","unstructured":"V. R. Konda and J. N. Tsitsiklis, \"Actor-critic algorithms,\" in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2000, pp. 1008--1014.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2019.00943"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","first-page":"11","volume-title":"Sapien: A simulated part-based interactive environment,\" in 2020 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","author":"Xiang F.","year":"2020","unstructured":"F. Xiang, Y. Qin, K. Mo, Y. Xia, H. Zhu, F. Liu, M. Liu, H. Jiang, Y. Yuan, H. Wang, L. Yi, A. X. Chang, L. J. Guibas, and H. Su, \"Sapien: A simulated part-based interactive environment,\" in 2020 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2020, pp. 11 094-11 104."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3659601","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3659601","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T17:01:42Z","timestamp":1755882102000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3659601"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3659601"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3659601","relation":{},"ISSN":["2474-9567"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2474-9567","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-05-15","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}