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Prior work has identified dark patterns in windows, icons, menus, and pointer (WIMP) interfaces and ubicomp environments, but how dark patterns can manifest in Augmented and Virtual Reality (collectively XR) requires more attention. We therefore conducted 10 co-design workshops with 20 experts in XR and deceptive design. Our participants co-designed 42 scenarios containing dark patterns, based on application archetypes presented in recent HCI\/XR literature. In the co-designed scenarios, we identified 10 novel dark patterns in addition to 39 existing ones, as well as 10 examples in which specific characteristics associated with XR potentially amplified the effect dark patterns could have on users. Based on our findings and prior work, we present a classification of XR-specific properties that facilitate dark patterns: perception, spatiality, physical\/virtual barriers, and XR device sensing. We also present the experts\u2019 assessments of the likelihood and severity of the co-designed scenarios and highlight key aspects they considered for this evaluation, for example, technological feasibility, ease of upscaling and distributing malicious implementations, and the application\u2019s context of use. Finally, we discuss means to mitigate XR dark patterns and support regulatory bodies to reduce potential harms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3660340","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,22]],"date-time":"2024-04-22T19:50:25Z","timestamp":1713815425000},"page":"1-39","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["What Makes XR Dark? Examining Emerging Dark Patterns in Augmented and Virtual Reality through Expert Co-Design"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4936-9787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronika","family":"Krau\u00df","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA and Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, Sankt Augustin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6602-3123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pejman","family":"Saeghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6470-1151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Boden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, Sankt Augustin, Germany and Fraunhofer FIT, Sankt Augustin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7051-5200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Khamis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8333-5687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark","family":"McGill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6466-3845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Gugenheimer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany and Telecom-Paris (IP-Paris), Paris, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3743-2387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Nebeling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3546155.3546691"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","volume-title":"Projecting Illusion: Film Spectatorship and the Impression of Reality","author":"Allen Richard","year":"1995","unstructured":"Richard Allen. 1995. 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