{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T04:17:43Z","timestamp":1776399463898,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,1]],"date-time":"2024-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie","award":["860813 - TReSPAsS-ETN"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["860813 - TReSPAsS-ETN"]}]},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research"},{"name":"Hessen State Ministry for Higher Education, Research"},{"name":"National Research Center for Applied Cybersecurity ATHENE"},{"name":"INTER-ACTION","award":["PID2021-126521OB-I00 MICINN\/FEDER"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2021-126521OB-I00 MICINN\/FEDER"]}]},{"name":"C\u00e1tedra ENIA UAM-VERIDAS en IA Responsable","award":["PRTR TSI-100927-2023-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRTR TSI-100927-2023-2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Comput. Surv."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Privacy-enhancing technologies are technologies that implement fundamental data protection principles. With respect to biometric recognition, different types of privacy-enhancing technologies have been introduced for protecting stored biometric data, which are generally classified as sensitive. In this regard, various taxonomies and conceptual categorizations have been proposed and standardisation activities have been carried out. However, these efforts have mainly been devoted to certain sub-categories of privacy-enhancing technologies and therefore lack generalization. This work provides an overview of concepts of privacy-enhancing technologies for biometric recognition in a unified framework. Key properties and differences between existing concepts are highlighted in detail at each processing step. Fundamental characteristics and limitations of existing technologies are discussed and related to data protection techniques and principles. Moreover, scenarios and methods for the assessment of privacy-enhancing technologies for biometric recognition are presented. This article is meant as a point of entry to the field of data protection for biometric recognition applications and is directed toward experienced researchers as well as non-experts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3664596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]],"date-time":"2024-05-14T11:04:28Z","timestamp":1715684668000},"page":"1-28","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["An Overview of Privacy-Enhancing Technologies in Biometric Recognition"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"56","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9036-6043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pietro","family":"Melzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1901-9468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Rathgeb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9393-3066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruben","family":"Tolosana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biometrics and Data Pattern Analytics (BiDA) Lab, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Escuela Politecnica Superior, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6338-8511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruben","family":"Vera-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Escuela Politecnica Superior, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9159-2923","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Busch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","volume-title":"Too Much Crypto","author":"Aumasson Jean-Philippe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jean-Philippe Aumasson. 2019. Too Much Crypto. Technical Report 1492."},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","article-title":"Cancellable multi-biometric template generation based on arnold cat map and aliasing.","volume":"72","author":"Ayoup Ahmed M.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ahmed M. Ayoup, Ashraf A. M. Khalaf, Walid El-Shafai, Fathi E. Abd El-Samie, Fahad Alraddady, and Salwa M. Serag Eldin. 2022. Cancellable multi-biometric template generation based on arnold cat map and aliasing. Computers, Materials & Continua 72, 2 (2022), 3687\u20133703.","journal-title":"Computers, Materials & Continua"},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1049\/bme2.12075","article-title":"Hybrid biometric template protection: Resolving the agony of choice between Bloom filters and homomorphic encryption","volume":"11","author":"Bassit Amina","year":"2022","unstructured":"Amina Bassit, Florian Hahn, Raymond Veldhuis, and Andreas Peter. 2022. Hybrid biometric template protection: Resolving the agony of choice between Bloom filters and homomorphic encryption. IET Biometrics 11, 5 (2022), 430\u2013444.","journal-title":"IET Biometrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","article-title":"Biometric authentication: A review","volume":"2","author":"Bhattacharyya Debnath","year":"2009","unstructured":"Debnath Bhattacharyya and Rahul Ranjan. 2009. Biometric authentication: A review. Science and Technology 2, 3 (2009), 22786.","journal-title":"Science and Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","first-page":"2001","article-title":"Laws, PETs and other technologies for privacy protection","volume":"1","author":"Borking John J.","year":"2001","unstructured":"John J. Borking and Charles Raab. 2001. Laws, PETs and other technologies for privacy protection. Journal of Information, Law and Technology 1, 1 (2001), 2001.","journal-title":"Journal of Information, Law and Technology"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/FG47880.2020.00007"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3002862"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-11207-2_7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-88625-9_20","volume-title":"Proc. Information and Communications Security","author":"Buhan Ileana","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ileana Buhan, Jeroen Doumen, Pieter Hartel, Qiang Tang, and Raymond Veldhuis. 2008. Embedding renewable cryptographic keys into continuous noisy data. In Proc. Information and Communications Security, Liqun Chen, Mark D. Ryan, and Guilin Wang (Eds.). Springer, Berlin,294\u2013310."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IIHMSP.2010.91"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/41409971"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2007.1087"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12394-010-0062-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","first-page":"12","article-title":"Privacy by design: The 7 foundational principles","volume":"5","author":"Cavoukian Ann","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ann Cavoukian. 2009. Privacy by design: The 7 foundational principles. Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, Canada 5 (2009), 12.","journal-title":"Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, Canada"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-1338.2011.00537.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-5906-5_880","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security","author":"Cavoukian Ann","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ann Cavoukian and Alex Stoianov. 2011. Biometric encryption. In Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security, Henk C. A. van Tilborg and Sushil Jajodia (Eds.). Springer US, Boston, MA, 90\u201398."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","first-page":"2203","volume-title":"Proc. 2004 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME\u201904)","volume":"3","author":"Chang Yao-Jen","year":"2004","unstructured":"Yao-Jen Chang, Wende Zhang, and Tsuhan Chen. 2004. Biometrics-based cryptographic key generation. In Proc. 2004 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME\u201904), Vol. 3. 2203\u20132206."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","first-page":"8789","volume-title":"Proc. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition","author":"Choi Yunjey","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yunjey Choi, Minje Choi, Munyoung Kim, Jung-Woo Ha, Sunghun Kim, and Jaegul Choo. 2018. StarGAN: Unified generative adversarial networks for multi-domain image-to-image translation. In Proc. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 8789\u20138797."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","volume-title":"Proc. Austral. Reform Comission Workshop (ALRCW\u201906)","author":"Clarke Roger","year":"2006","unstructured":"Roger Clarke. 2006. What\u2019s \u2018privacy\u2019? In Proc. Austral. Reform Comission Workshop (ALRCW\u201906), Vol. 28. DOI:http:\/\/www.rogerclarke.com\/DV\/Privacy.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","volume-title":"Universal Declaration of Human Rights","author":"Committee Draft","year":"1948","unstructured":"Draft Committee. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved April 21, 2022 from DOI:https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/about-us\/universal-declaration-of-human-rights"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","volume-title":"Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union","author":"Convention European","year":"2000","unstructured":"European Convention. 2000. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Retrieved April 19, 2022 from DOI:https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:12012P\/TXT"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2015.2480381"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2019.113114"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3510579","article-title":"A survey of privacy vulnerabilities of mobile device sensors","author":"Delgado-Santos Paula","year":"2022","unstructured":"Paula Delgado-Santos, Giuseppe Stragapede, Ruben Tolosana, Richard Guest, Farzin Deravi, and Ruben Vera-Rodriguez. 2022. A survey of privacy vulnerabilities of mobile device sensors. Computing Surveys 54 (2022), 1\u201330.","journal-title":"Computing Surveys"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paula Delgado-Santos Ruben Tolosana Richard Guest Ruben Vera Farzin Deravi and Aythami Morales. 2022. Gait-PrivacyON: Privacy-preserving mobile gait biometrics using unsupervised learning. Pattern Recognition Letters 161 (2022) 30\u201337.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2022.07.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2019 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (Biosig\u201919)","author":"Drozdowski Pawel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pawel Drozdowski, Nicolas Buchmann, Christian Rathgeb, Marian Margraf, and Christoph Busch. 2019. On the application of homomorphic encryption to face identification. In 2019 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (Biosig\u201919). IEEE, 1\u20135."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-bmt.2019.0076"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","first-page":"3757","volume-title":"Proc. IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision","author":"Drozdowski Pawel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pawel Drozdowski, Christian Rathgeb, and Christoph Busch. 2021. The watchlist imbalance effect in biometric face identification: Comparing theoretical estimates and empiric measurements. In Proc. IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision. 3757\u20133765."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2009.2038760"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2907333.2907524"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"IFIP International Conference on Communications and Multimedia Security","author":"Goh Alwyn","year":"2003","unstructured":"Alwyn Goh and David C. L. Ngo. 2003. Computation of cryptographic keys from face biometrics. In IFIP International Conference on Communications and Multimedia Security. Springer, 1\u201313."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2019.101700"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2017.2788000"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2017.01.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patrick Grother. 2022. Face recognition vendor test (FRVT) Part 8: Summarizing demographic differentials. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Gaithersburg MD USA Interagency Rep. NISTIR 8429.","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.IR.8429.ipd"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2022.3228494"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBIOM.2022.3140472"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2015.05.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BTAS46853.2019.9186002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","volume-title":"ISO\/IEC 24745:2022. Information Technology\u2014Security Techniques\u2014Biometric Information Protection","author":"Techniques ISO\/IEC JTC1 SC27 Security","year":"2022","unstructured":"ISO\/IEC JTC1 SC27 Security Techniques. 2022. ISO\/IEC 24745:2022. Information Technology\u2014Security Techniques\u2014Biometric Information Protection. International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","unstructured":"ISO\/IEC JTC1 SC37 Biometrics. 2022. ISO\/IEC 2382-37:2022 Information Technology\u2014Vocabulary\u2014Part 37: Biometrics."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","volume-title":"ISO\/IEC 30136:2018. Information Technology\u2014Performance Testing of Biometric Template Protection Schemes","author":"Techniques ISO\/IEC JTC1 SC37 Security","year":"2018","unstructured":"ISO\/IEC JTC1 SC37 Security Techniques. 2018. ISO\/IEC 30136:2018. Information Technology\u2014Performance Testing of Biometric Template Protection Schemes. International Organization for Standardization."},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1109\/TBIOM.2021.3115465","article-title":"Biometrics: Trust, but verify","volume":"4","author":"Jain Anil K.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Anil K. Jain, Debayan Deb, and Joshua J. Engelsma. 2021. Biometrics: Trust, but verify. IEEE Transactions on Biometrics, Behavior, and Identity Science 4, 3 (2021), 303\u2013323.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Biometrics, Behavior, and Identity Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2003.818349"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2004.04.011"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2017.2753172","article-title":"Ranking-based locality sensitive hashing-enabled cancelable biometrics: Index-of-max hashing","volume":"13","author":"Jin Zhe","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zhe Jin, Jung Yeon Hwang, Yen-Lung Lai, Soohyung Kim, and Andrew Beng Jin Teoh. 2017. Ranking-based locality sensitive hashing-enabled cancelable biometrics: Index-of-max hashing. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 13, 2 (2017), 393\u2013407.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","first-page":"1127","volume-title":"2020 IEEE 19th International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom\u201920)","author":"Jindal Arun Kumar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Arun Kumar Jindal, Imtiyazuddin Shaik, Vasudha Vasudha, Srinivasa Rao Chalamala, Rajan Ma, and Sachin Lodha. 2020. Secure and privacy preserving method for biometric template protection using fully homomorphic encryption. In 2020 IEEE 19th International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom\u201920). IEEE, 1127\u20131134."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10623-005-6343-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/319709.319714"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1109\/BSYM.2008.4655523","volume-title":"2008 Biometrics Symposium","author":"Kanade Sanjay","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sanjay Kanade, Danielle Camara, Emine Krichen, Dijana Petrovska-Delacr\u00e9taz, and Bernadette Dorizzi. 2008. Three factor scheme for biometric-based cryptographic key regeneration using iris. In 2008 Biometrics Symposium. IEEE, 59\u201364."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2021.11.018"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-13817-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2020 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (BIOSIG\u201920)","author":"Kolberg Jascha","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jascha Kolberg, Pawel Drozdowski, Marta Gomez-Barrero, Christian Rathgeb, and Christoph Busch. 2020. Efficiency analysis of post-quantum-secure face template protection schemes based on homomorphic encryption. In 2020 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (BIOSIG\u201920). IEEE, 1\u20134."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1109\/AVSS.2013.6636641","volume-title":"Proc. 2013 10th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance","author":"Korshunov Pavel","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pavel Korshunov and Touradj Ebrahimi. 2013. Using face morphing to protect privacy. In Proc. 2013 10th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance. 208\u2013213."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2011.07.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3474085.3475367"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2582841"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/PerComW.2012.6197507"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2020.3009590"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2018.2827389"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-254-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2021.3096024"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_2","first-page":"323","volume-title":"Proc. IEEE\/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision Workshops","author":"Melzi Pietro","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pietro Melzi, Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Christian Rathgeb, Ruben Tolosana, Ruben Vera-Rodriguez, Julian Fierrez, S\u00e9bastien Marcel, and Christoph Busch. 2023. Multi-IVE: Privacy enhancement of multiple soft-biometrics in face embeddings. In Proc. IEEE\/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision Workshops. 323\u2013331."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_65_2","article-title":"Analyzing artificial intelligence systems for the prediction of atrial fibrillation from sinus-rhythm ECGs including demographics and feature visualization","volume":"11","author":"Melzi Pietro","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pietro Melzi, Ruben Tolosana, Alberto Cecconi, Ancor Sanz-Garcia, Guillermo J. Ortega, Luis Jesus Jimenez-Borreguero, and Ruben Vera-Rodriguez. 2021. Analyzing artificial intelligence systems for the prediction of atrial fibrillation from sinus-rhythm ECGs including demographics and feature visualization. Scientific Reports 11, 1 (2021).","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2020.3024026"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BTAS.2017.8272743"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2020.3015420"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_69_2","first-page":"237","volume-title":"Proc. Media Forensics and Security II","author":"Nagar Abhishek","year":"2010","unstructured":"Abhishek Nagar, Karthik Nandakumar, and Anil K. Jain. 2010. Biometric template transformation: A security analysis. In Proc. Media Forensics and Security II, Vol. 7541. SPIE, 237\u2013251."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2015.2427849"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2021.3071243"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_72_2","volume-title":"Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ETS No. 005)","author":"Union Council of the European","year":"1950","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. 1950. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ETS No. 005). Retrieved April 19, 2022 from DOI:https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=005"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_73_2","volume-title":"Council of Europe Convention 108 for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data","author":"Union Council of the European","year":"1981","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. 1981. Council of Europe Convention 108 for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data. Retrieved June 7, 2022 from https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:02016R0679-20160504&qid=1532348683434"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_74_2","volume-title":"Chapter 5: Privacy-Enhancing Technologies (PETs)","author":"Office Information Commissioner\u2019s","year":"2022","unstructured":"Information Commissioner\u2019s Office. 2022. Chapter 5: Privacy-Enhancing Technologies (PETs). Retrieved October 25, 2023 from https:\/\/ico.org.uk\/media\/about-the-ico\/consultations\/4021464\/chapter-5-anonymisation-pets.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_75_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2021 31st International Conference Radioelektronika (RADIOELEKTRONIKA\u201921)","author":"Oravec Jakub","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jakub Oravec, L\u2019ubo\u0161 Ovsen\u00edk, and J\u00e1n Tur\u00e1n. 2021. A plaintext-related image encryption algorithm usable in biometric systems. In 2021 31st International Conference Radioelektronika (RADIOELEKTRONIKA\u201921). IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_2_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1109\/TBIOM.2022.3172724","article-title":"An attack on facial soft-biometric privacy enhancement","volume":"4","author":"Osorio-Roig Dail\u00e9","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dail\u00e9 Osorio-Roig, Christian Rathgeb, Pawel Drozdowski, Philipp Terh\u00f6rst, Vitomir \u0160truc, and Christoph Busch. 2022. An attack on facial soft-biometric privacy enhancement. IEEE Transactions on Biometrics, Behavior, and Identity Science 4, 2 (2022), 263\u2013275.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Biometrics, Behavior, and Identity Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_77_2","first-page":"682","volume-title":"Proc. Computer Vision (ECCV\u201914 Workshops): Zurich, Switzerland, September 6-7 and 12, 2014, Proceedings, Part II 13","author":"Othman Asem","year":"2015","unstructured":"Asem Othman and Arun Ross. 2015. Privacy of facial soft biometrics: Suppressing gender but retaining identity. In Proc. Computer Vision (ECCV\u201914 Workshops): Zurich, Switzerland, September 6-7 and 12, 2014, Proceedings, Part II 13. Springer, 682\u2013696."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_78_2","volume-title":"Regulation (EU) 2016\/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing Directive 95\/46\/EC (General Data Protection Regulation)","author":"Parliament European","year":"2016","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2016. Regulation (EU) 2016\/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing Directive 95\/46\/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). Retrieved April 19, 2022 from https:\/\/bit.ly\/3y0kDkD"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2015.2434151"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_80_2","volume-title":"Proc. 2016 1st International Workshop on Sensing, Processing and Learning for Intelligent Machines (SPLINE\u201916)","author":"Piciucco Emanuela","year":"2016","unstructured":"Emanuela Piciucco, Emanuele Maiorana, Christof Kauba, Andreas Uhl, and Patrizio Campisi. 2016. Cancelable biometrics for finger vein recognition. In Proc. 2016 1st International Workshop on Sensing, Processing and Learning for Intelligent Machines (SPLINE\u201916)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBIOM.2020.3046620"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_82_2","article-title":"Mobile contactless fingerprint recognition: Implementation, performance and usability aspects","volume":"22","author":"Priesnitz Jannis","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jannis Priesnitz, Rolf Huesmann, Christian Rathgeb, Nicolas Buchmann, and Christoph Busch. 2022. Mobile contactless fingerprint recognition: Implementation, performance and usability aspects. Sensors 22, 3 (2022), 792.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCSCT.2008.226"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_2_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1109\/MMUL.2014.65","article-title":"Standardization of biometric template protection","volume":"21","author":"Rane Shantanu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shantanu Rane. 2014. Standardization of biometric template protection. IEEE MultiMedia 21, 4 (2014), 94\u201399.","journal-title":"IEEE MultiMedia"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1147\/sj.403.0614"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_86_2","first-page":"173","article-title":"Biometric template protection: State-of-the-art, issues and challenges","author":"Rathgeb Christian","year":"2017","unstructured":"Christian Rathgeb and Christoph Busch. 2017. Biometric template protection: State-of-the-art, issues and challenges. User-centric Privacy and Security in Biometrics (2017), 173\u2013191. https:\/\/digital-library.theiet.org\/content\/books\/10.1049\/pbse004e_ch8","journal-title":"User-centric Privacy and Security in Biometrics"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_87_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-417X-2011-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_88_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-018-6808-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_89_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2019.2946162"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_90_2","article-title":"PrivacyProber: Assessment and detection of soft-biometric privacy-enhancing techniques","author":"Rot Peter","year":"2023","unstructured":"Peter Rot, Klemen Grm, Peter Peer, and Vitomir \u0160truc. 2023. PrivacyProber: Assessment and detection of soft-biometric privacy-enhancing techniques. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing (2023), 1\u201318. https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/10264192\/authors#authors","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2021.3124735"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_92_2","first-page":"1333","article-title":"Privacy by design: A counterfactual analysis of Google and Facebook privacy incidents","volume":"28","author":"Rubinstein Ira S.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ira S. Rubinstein and Nathaniel Good. 2013. Privacy by design: A counterfactual analysis of Google and Facebook privacy incidents. Berkeley Technology Law Journal 28 (2013), 1333.","journal-title":"Berkeley Technology Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_93_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2021.103247"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_94_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2021 IEEE International Workshop on Information Forensics and Security (WIFS\u201921)","author":"Shahreza Hatef Otroshi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Vedrana Krivoku\u0107a Hahn, and S\u00e9bastien Marcel. 2021. On the recognition performance of biohashing on state-of-the-art face recognition models. In 2021 IEEE International Workshop on Information Forensics and Security (WIFS\u201921). IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_95_2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 31st European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO\u201923)","author":"Shahreza Hatef Otroshi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Vedrana Krivoku\u0107a Hahn, and S\u00e9bastien Marcel. 2023. MLP-Hash: Protecting face templates via hashing of randomized multi-layer perceptron. In Proceedings of the 31st European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO\u201923). IEEE."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_96_2","article-title":"Benchmarking of cancelable biometrics for deep templates","author":"Shahreza Hatef Otroshi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Pietro Melzi, Dail\u00e9 Osorio-Roig, Christian Rathgeb, Christoph Busch, S\u00e9bastien Marcel, Ruben Tolosana, and Ruben Vera-Rodriguez. 2023. Benchmarking of cancelable biometrics for deep templates. arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.13286 (2023).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.13286"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_97_2","volume-title":"2022 IEEE International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB\u201922)","author":"Shahreza Hatef Otroshi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Christian Rathgeb, Dail\u00e9 Osorio-Roig, Vedrana Krivokuca Hahn, S\u00e9bastien Marcel, and Christoph Busch. 2022. Hybrid protection of biometric templates by combining homomorphic encryption and cancelable biometrics. In 2022 IEEE International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB\u201922). IEEE."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_98_2","article-title":"Measuring linkability of protected biometric templates using maximal leakage","author":"Shahreza Hatef Otroshi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hatef Otroshi Shahreza, Yanina Y. Shkel, and S\u00e9bastien Marcel. 2023. Measuring linkability of protected biometric templates using maximal leakage. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 18 (2023), 2262\u20132275.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2020.3034267"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_100_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4218\/etrij.09.0209.0137"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_101_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2010 4th IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS\u201910)","author":"Simoens Koen","year":"2010","unstructured":"Koen Simoens, Chi-Ming Chang, and Bart Preneel. 2010. Reversing protected minutiae vicinities. In 2010 4th IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS\u201910). IEEE, 1\u20138."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2009.24"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_103_2","first-page":"498","volume-title":"5th IAPR International Conference on Biometrics (ICB\u201912)","author":"Simoens Koen","year":"2012","unstructured":"Koen Simoens, Bian Yang, Xuebing Zhou, Filipe Beato, Christoph Busch, Elaine M. Newton, and Bart Preneel. 2012. Criteria towards metrics for benchmarking template protection algorithms. In 5th IAPR International Conference on Biometrics (ICB\u201912). 498\u2013505."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_104_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proc. 2014 Recent Advances in Engineering and Computational Sciences (RAECS\u201914)","author":"Sood Parul","year":"2014","unstructured":"Parul Sood and Manvjeet Kaur. 2014. Methods of automatic alignment of fingerprint in fuzzy vault: A review. In Proc. 2014 Recent Advances in Engineering and Computational Sciences (RAECS\u201914). 1\u20134."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_105_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-019-01432-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_106_2","article-title":"Unsupervised enhancement of soft-biometric privacy with negative face recognition","author":"Terh\u00f6rst Philipp","year":"2020","unstructured":"Philipp Terh\u00f6rst, Marco Huber, Naser Damer, Florian Kirchbuchner, and Arjan Kuijper. 2020. Unsupervised enhancement of soft-biometric privacy with negative face recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.09181 (2020).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.09181"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_107_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proc. 2019 International Conference on Biometrics (ICB\u201919)","author":"Terh\u00f6rst Philipp","year":"2019","unstructured":"Philipp Terh\u00f6rst, Naser Damer, Florian Kirchbuchner, and Arjan Kuijper. 2019. Suppressing gender and age in face templates using incremental variable elimination. In Proc. 2019 International Conference on Biometrics (ICB\u201919). 1\u20138."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_108_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IJCB48548.2020.9304874"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_109_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2020 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (BIOSIG\u201920)","author":"Terh\u00f6rst Philipp","year":"2020","unstructured":"Philipp Terh\u00f6rst, Marco Huber, Naser Damer, Peter Rot, Florian Kirchbuchner, Vitomir Struc, and Arjan Kuijper. 2020. Privacy evaluation protocols for the evaluation of soft-biometric privacy-enhancing technologies. In 2020 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (BIOSIG\u201920). 1\u20135."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_110_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2994960"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_111_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2020.2973832"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_112_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2022.108609"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_113_2","first-page":"169","volume-title":"2022 International Conference on Computing, Communication, and Intelligent Systems (ICCCIS\u201922)","author":"Wang Yazhou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yazhou Wang, Bing Li, Jiaxin Wu, Qianya Ma, Guozhu Liu, and Yuqi Li. 2022. A secure biometric template protection mechanism against similarity-based attack. In 2022 International Conference on Computing, Communication, and Intelligent Systems (ICCCIS\u201922). IEEE, 169\u2013175."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_114_2","first-page":"166","article-title":"Privacy and freedom","volume":"25","author":"Westin Alan F.","year":"1968","unstructured":"Alan F. Westin. 1968. Privacy and freedom. Washington and Lee Law Review 25, 1 (1968), 166.","journal-title":"Washington and Lee Law Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_115_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1540-4560.00072"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_116_2","volume-title":"Privacy-Enhancing Technologies","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wikipedia. 2023. Privacy-Enhancing Technologies. Retrieved October 19, 2023 from DOI:https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy-enhancing_technologies"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_117_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2014 International Conference on Electronics, Information and Communications (ICEIC\u201914)","author":"Wong Wei Jing","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wei Jing Wong, M. L. Dennis Wong, and Andrew Beng Jin Teoh. 2014. A security-and privacy-driven hybrid biometric template protection technique. In 2014 International Conference on Electronics, Information and Communications (ICEIC\u201914). IEEE, 1\u20135."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_118_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2009 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems","author":"Yang Bian","year":"2009","unstructured":"Bian Yang and Christoph Busch. 2009. Parameterized geometric alignment for minutiae-based fingerprint template protection. In 2009 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems. IEEE, 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_119_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s23073566"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_120_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3503161.3548202"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_121_2","article-title":"RAPP: Reversible privacy preservation for various face attributes","author":"Zhang Yushu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yushu Zhang, Tao Wang, Ruoyu Zhao, Wenying Wen, and Youwen Zhu. 2023. RAPP: Reversible privacy preservation for various face attributes. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 18 (2023), 3047\u20133087.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_122_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1973.1055015"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_123_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proc. 2008 19th International Conference on Pattern Recognition","author":"Zuo Jinyu","year":"2008","unstructured":"Jinyu Zuo, Nalini K. Ratha, and Jonathan H. Connell. 2008. Cancelable iris biometric. In Proc. 2008 19th International Conference on Pattern Recognition. 1\u20134."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_124_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietro Melzi Christian Rathgeb Ruben Tolosana Ruben Vera-Rodriguez Dominik Lawatsch Florian Domin and Maxim Schaubert. 2023. GANDiffFace: Controllable generation of synthetic datasets for face recognition with realistic variations. In Proc. IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision. 3086\u20133095.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW60793.2023.00333"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_125_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietro Melzi Ruben Tolosana Ruben Vera-Rodriguez Minchul Kim Christian Rathgeb Xiaoming Liu Ivan DeAndres-Tame et\u00a0al. 2024. FRCSyn-onGoing: Benchmarking and comprehensive evaluation of real and synthetic data to improve face recognition systems. Information Fusion 107 (2024) 102322.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2024.102322"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_126_2","unstructured":"Ivan DeAndres-Tame Ruben Tolosana Pietro Melzi Ruben Vera-Rodriguez Minchul Kim Christian Rathgeb Xiaoming Liu et\u00a0al. 2024. FRCSyn Challenge at CVPR 2024: Face recognition challenge in the era of synthetic data. arXiv preprint arXiv:2404.10378 (2024)."}],"container-title":["ACM Computing Surveys"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3664596","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3664596","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T00:03:44Z","timestamp":1750291424000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3664596"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3664596"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3664596","relation":{},"ISSN":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0360-0300","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7341","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-10-25","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-05-04","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-10-01","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}