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Internet Things"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Runtime attacks are a rising threat to both low- and high-end systems with the spread of techniques such as Return-Oriented Programming (ROP), which aims at hijacking the control flow of vulnerable applications. Although several control flow integrity schemes have been proposed by both academia and the industry, the vast majority of them are not compatible with low-end embedded devices, especially the ones that lack hardware security features.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            In this article, we propose\n            <jats:inline-formula content-type=\"math\/tex\">\n              <jats:tex-math notation=\"LaTeX\" version=\"MathJax\">\\(\\sf {\\textsc {FLAShadow}}\\)<\/jats:tex-math>\n            <\/jats:inline-formula>\n            , a secure shadow stack design and implementation for low-end embedded systems, relying on zero hardware security features. The key idea is to leverage a software-based memory isolation mechanism to establish an integrity-protected memory area on the Flash of the target device, where\n            <jats:inline-formula content-type=\"math\/tex\">\n              <jats:tex-math notation=\"LaTeX\" version=\"MathJax\">\\(\\sf {\\textsc {FLAShadow}}\\)<\/jats:tex-math>\n            <\/jats:inline-formula>\n            can be securely maintained.\n            <jats:inline-formula content-type=\"math\/tex\">\n              <jats:tex-math notation=\"LaTeX\" version=\"MathJax\">\\(\\sf {\\textsc {FLAShadow}}\\)<\/jats:tex-math>\n            <\/jats:inline-formula>\n            exclusively reserves a register for maintaining the integrity of the stack pointer and also depends on a minimal trusted runtime component to avoid trusting the compiler toolchain. We evaluate an open-source implementation of\n            <jats:inline-formula content-type=\"math\/tex\">\n              <jats:tex-math notation=\"LaTeX\" version=\"MathJax\">\\(\\sf {\\textsc {FLAShadow}}\\)<\/jats:tex-math>\n            <\/jats:inline-formula>\n            for the MSP430 architecture, showing an average performance and memory overhead of 168.58% and 25.91%, respectively. While the average performance overhead is considered high, we show that it is application dependent and incurs less than 5% for some applications.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3670413","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,10]],"date-time":"2024-07-10T10:52:22Z","timestamp":1720608742000},"page":"1-29","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["FLAShadow: A Flash-based Shadow Stack for Low-end Embedded Systems"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8284-6290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Grisafi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Trento, Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4963-5854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Ammar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Huawei Research, Munich Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9483-3940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Roveri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Trento, Trento Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1252-8465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Crispo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Trento, Trento Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1609956.1609960"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2240276.2240279","article-title":"On protection by layout randomization","volume":"15","author":"Abadi Mart\u00edn","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn Abadi and Gordon D. 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