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Surv."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Fully Homomorphic Encryption\u00a0(FHE) is a key technology enabling privacy-preserving computing. However, the fundamental challenge of FHE is its inefficiency, due primarily to the underlying polynomial computations with high computation complexity and extremely time-consuming ciphertext maintenance operations. To tackle this challenge, various FHE accelerators have recently been proposed by both research and industrial communities. This article takes the first initiative to conduct a systematic study on the 14 FHE accelerators: cuHE\/cuFHE, nuFHE, HEAT, HEAX, HEXL, HEXL-FPGA, 100\u00d7, F1, CraterLake, BTS, ARK, Poseidon, FAB, and TensorFHE. We first make our observations on the evolution trajectory of these existing FHE accelerators to establish a qualitative connection between them. Then, we perform testbed evaluations of representative open-source FHE accelerators to provide a quantitative comparison on them. Finally, with the insights learned from both qualitative and quantitative studies, we discuss potential directions to inform the future design and implementation for FHE accelerators.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3676955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,5]],"date-time":"2024-07-05T11:14:18Z","timestamp":1720178058000},"page":"1-32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":67,"title":["SoK: Fully Homomorphic Encryption Accelerators"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"56","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6926-7801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junxue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3696-064X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaodian","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4393-1791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liu","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8216-9683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinbin","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4238-3295","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ximeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2587-6028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","unstructured":"GitHub 2015. 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