{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T16:07:07Z","timestamp":1767974827349,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62302439, U23A20296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62302439, U23A20296"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["226-2024-00004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["226-2024-00004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100022963","name":"Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024C01065"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024C01065"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100022963","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001459","name":"Ministry of Education, Singapore","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001459","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Sen. Netw."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Face authentication (FA) schemes are widely adopted in smart homes nowadays. However, existing FA systems for smart appliances are commonly camera-based and hence experience performance degradation in poor illumination conditions. Mainstream FA systems based on radio frequency require dedicated hardware that is inaccessible to many appliances. In this paper, we propose an acoustic signals-based FA scheme that extracts acoustic signal features associated with facial 3D geometries to achieve FA named\n            <jats:italic>SoundFace<\/jats:italic>\n            . This scheme can be widely deployed on most appliances in home environments. We propose a novel two-stage locating approach based on acoustic sensing to capture the signal variation of the user\u2019s face and separate the face region echoes from multipath interferences in the distance dimension. To obtain distinguishable facial features, we design a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)-based feature extractor. In addition, the acoustic signal is highly susceptible to different changes in practical authentication. To overcome it, we utilize a transfer learning technique with little training overhead to enable SoundFace resilient to various authentication changes. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that SoundFace achieves an average true authentication rate of over 96.2% and an equal error rate of 4.2%, and it is robust to various real-world settings.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3708324","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,16]],"date-time":"2024-12-16T10:24:00Z","timestamp":1734344640000},"page":"1-23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Listen to Your Face: A Face Authentication Scheme Based on Acoustic Signals"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1194-0810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huimin","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2153-811X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaojie","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5203-7496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lilin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8441-9973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1505-6766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shibo","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3155-3145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China and School of Automation, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","unstructured":"Amazon. 2024. Amazon Echo Dot newest model. https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/All-New-Amazon-Echo-Dot-Add-Alexa-To-Any-Room\/dp\/B01DFKC2SO"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","unstructured":"Apple. 2023. Apple HomePod.https:\/\/www.apple.com\/shop\/buy-homepod\/homepod"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","unstructured":"Bela. 2024. Bela Platform. https:\/\/learn.bela.io"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2959203"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2001.958946"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28501-6_8"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3447993.3448624"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3372224.3419206"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3117811.3117823"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3494988"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR42600.2020.00620"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","first-page":"448","volume-title":"International Conference on Machine Learning","author":"Ioffe Sergey","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sergey Ioffe and Christian Szegedy. 2015. Batch normalization: Accelerating deep network training by reducing internal covariate shift. In International Conference on Machine Learning. PMLR, 448\u2013456."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","article-title":"Adam: A method for stochastic optimization","author":"Kingma Diederik P.","year":"2014","unstructured":"Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Ba. 2014. Adam: A method for stochastic optimization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980 (2014).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2024.3381598"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2022.3202115"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3323679.3326518"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3517253"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3560905.3568528"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3300061.3345434"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3494985"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-254-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","unstructured":"Mirlori. 2023. Gaze In Find Your Beauty.https:\/\/mirlori.com\/products\/led-bathroom-vanity."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT51360.2021.9595283"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5244\/C.29.41"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","volume-title":"Raspberry Pi 4 Model B.","author":"Pi Raspberry","year":"2023","unstructured":"Raspberry Pi. 2023. Raspberry Pi 4 Model B."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","volume-title":"Raspberry Pi Camera Module 2.","author":"Camera Raspberry Pi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Raspberry Pi Camera. 2023. Raspberry Pi Camera Module 2."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","unstructured":"Samsung. 2023. Smart TV | voice-assistants. https:\/\/www.samsung.com\/us\/tvs\/smart-tv\/voice-assistants\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Florian Schroff Dmitry Kalenichenko and James Philbin. 2015. Facenet: A unified embedding for face recognition and clustering. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 815\u2013823.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298682"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","unstructured":"Statista. 2023. Smart Home | Worldwide | Statista Market Forecast.https:\/\/www.statista.com\/outlook\/dmo\/smart-home\/worldwide"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3569472"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2508859.2516700"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","article-title":"Visualizing data using t-SNE.","volume":"9","author":"Maaten Laurens Van der","year":"2008","unstructured":"Laurens Van der Maaten and Geoffrey Hinton. 2008. Visualizing data using t-SNE. Journal of Machine Learning Research 9, 11 (2008).","journal-title":"Journal of Machine Learning Research"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3230543.3230565"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3161188"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3534592"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3447993.3482858"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM48880.2022.9796951"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCS60910.2024.00103"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM42981.2021.9488737"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3495243.3560515"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW50498.2020.00407"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3300061.3300118"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/PerCom45495.2020.9127367"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3432192"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2020.3048659"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3708324","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3708324","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T01:09:45Z","timestamp":1750295385000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3708324"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3708324"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3708324","relation":{},"ISSN":["1550-4859","1550-4867"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1550-4859","type":"print"},{"value":"1550-4867","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-05-13","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-11-20","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-01-27","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}