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Methodol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>WebAssembly (abbreviated as Wasm) was initially introduced for the Web and quickly extended its reach into various domains beyond the Web. To create Wasm applications, developers can compile high-level programming languages into Wasm binaries or manually write the textual format of Wasm and translate it into Wasm binaries by the toolchain. Regardless of whether it is utilized within or outside the Web, the execution of Wasm binaries is supported by the Wasm runtime. Such a runtime provides a secure, memory-efficient, and sandboxed execution environment to execute Wasm binaries. This article provides a comprehensive survey of research on Wasm runtimes with 103 collected research papers related to Wasm runtimes following the traditional systematic literature review process. It characterizes existing studies from two different angles, including the internal research of Wasm runtimes (Wasm runtime design, testing, and analysis) and the external research (applying Wasm runtimes to various domains). This article also proposes future research directions about Wasm runtimes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3714465","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T10:59:04Z","timestamp":1737629944000},"page":"1-47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Research on WebAssembly Runtimes: A Survey"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3466-0165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yixuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of High Confidence Software Technologies (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China and School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7625-8721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mugeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of High Confidence Software Technologies (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China and School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1100-8633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haoyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7866-4075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yun","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of High Confidence Software Technologies (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China and School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4686-3181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gang","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China and National Key Laboratory of Data Space Technology and System, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7908-8484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuanzhe","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of High Confidence Software Technologies (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China and School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_1","unstructured":"Emscripten. 2015. 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