{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T06:58:55Z","timestamp":1774249135110,"version":"3.50.1"},"publisher-location":"New York, NY, USA","reference-count":76,"publisher":"ACM","content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"DOI":"10.1145\/3715275.3732048","type":"proceedings-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T17:03:13Z","timestamp":1750698193000},"page":"763-771","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Reality of AI and Biorisk"],"prefix":"10.1145","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1239-0478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aidan","family":"Peppin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cohere and Cohere Labs, London, United Kingdom"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7913-9296","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anka","family":"Reuel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University, Stanford, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0084-1937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Casper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MIT, Massachusetts, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6790-0347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elliot","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ada Lovelace Institute, London, United Kingdom"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3683-2293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Strait","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ada Lovelace Institute, London, United Kingdom"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7229-2337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Usman","family":"Anwar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0340-5252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anurag","family":"Agrawal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ashoka University, New Delhi, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5695-280X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sayash","family":"Kapoor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Princeton University, Princeton, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4023-419X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanmi","family":"Koyejo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University, Stanford, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5017-4129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Pellat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mistral AI, Paris, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9616-5138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rishi","family":"Bommasani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University, Stanford, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0068-5891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nick","family":"Frosst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cohere and Cohere Labs, Toronto, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0190-6459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Hooker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cohere Labs, San Francisco, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Josh Abramson Jonas Adler Jack Dunger Richard Evans Tim Green Alexander Pritzel Olaf Ronneberger Lindsay Willmore Andrew\u00a0J. Ballard Joshua Bambrick Sebastian\u00a0W. Bodenstein David\u00a0A. Evans Chia-Chun Hung Michael O\u2019Neill David Reiman Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool Zachary Wu Akvil\u0117 \u017demgulyt\u0117 Eirini Arvaniti Charles Beattie Ottavia Bertolli Alex Bridgland Alexey Cherepanov Miles Congreve Alexander\u00a0I. Cowen-Rivers Andrew Cowie Michael Figurnov Fabian\u00a0B. Fuchs Hannah Gladman Rishub Jain Yousuf\u00a0A. Khan Caroline M.\u00a0R. Low Kuba Perlin Anna Potapenko Pascal Savy Sukhdeep Singh Adrian Stecula Ashok Thillaisundaram Catherine Tong Sergei Yakneen Ellen\u00a0D. Zhong Michal Zielinski Augustin \u017d\u00eddek Victor Bapst Pushmeet Kohli Max Jaderberg Demis Hassabis and John\u00a0M. Jumper. 2024. Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3. 630 8016 (2024) 493\u2013500. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-024-07487-w","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07487-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_3_2","unstructured":"Gregory\u00a0C Allen. 2023. Advanced Technology: Examining Threats to National Security. https:\/\/www.hsgac.senate.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/Allen-Testimony.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_4_2","unstructured":"Jeff Alstott. 2023. Preparing the Federal Response to Advanced Technologies. https:\/\/www.hsgac.senate.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/Alstott-Testimony.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_5_2","volume-title":"Frontier Threats Red Teaming for AI Safety","year":"2023","unstructured":"Anthropic. 2023. Frontier Threats Red Teaming for AI Safety. https:\/\/www.anthropic.com\/news\/frontier-threats-red-teaming-for-ai-safety"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_6_2","volume-title":"Claude 3 Model Card","year":"2024","unstructured":"Anthropic. 2024. Claude 3 Model Card. Technical Report. https:\/\/docs.anthropic.com\/en\/docs\/resources\/model-card"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Minkyung Baek Ivan Anishchenko Ian\u00a0R. Humphreys Qian Cong David Baker and Frank DiMaio. 2023. Efficient and accurate prediction of protein structure using RoseTTAFold2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2023.05.24.542179","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.05.24.542179"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_8_2","unstructured":"Steph Batalis. 2023. AI and BioRisk: An Explainer. https:\/\/cset.georgetown.edu\/publication\/ai-and-biorisk-an-explainer\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_9_2","unstructured":"Ewen Callaway. 2024. Could AI-designed proteins be weaponized? (2024). https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-024-00699-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_10_2","unstructured":"Quintina\u00a0L. Campbell Jonathan Herington and Andrew\u00a0D. White. 2023. Censoring chemical data to mitigate dual use risk. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2304.10510http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2304.10510"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_11_2","unstructured":"Rocco Casagrande. 2023. Statement to the US Senate AI Insight Forum on \u201cRisk Alignment and Guarding Against Doomsday Scenarios\". https:\/\/www.schumer.senate.gov\/imo\/media\/doc\/Rocco%20Casagrande%20-%20Statement.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jun Cheng Guido Novati Joshua Pan Clare Bycroft Akvil\u0117 \u017demgulyt\u0117 Taylor Applebaum Alexander Pritzel Lai\u00a0Hong Wong Michal Zielinski Tobias Sargeant Rosalia\u00a0G. Schneider Andrew\u00a0W. Senior John Jumper Demis Hassabis Pushmeet Kohli and \u017diga Avsec. 2023. Accurate proteome-wide missense variant effect prediction with AlphaMissense. Science (2023). 10.1126\/science.adg7492","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adg7492"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-024-2086-92"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_14_2","unstructured":"John Dang Shivalika Singh Daniel D\u2019souza Arash Ahmadian Alejandro Salamanca Madeline Smith Aidan Peppin Sungjin Hong Manoj Govindassamy Terrence Zhao Sandra Kublik Meor Amer Viraat Aryabumi Jon\u00a0Ander Campos Yi-Chern Tan Tom Kocmi Florian Strub Nathan Grinsztajn Yannis Flet-Berliac Acyr Locatelli Hangyu Lin Dwarak Talupuru Bharat Venkitesh David Cairuz Bowen Yang Tim Chung Wei-Yin Ko Sylvie\u00a0Shang Shi Amir Shukayev Sammie Bae Aleksandra Piktus Roman Castagn\u00e9 Felipe Cruz-Salinas Eddie Kim Lucas Crawhall-Stein Adrien Morisot Sudip Roy Phil Blunsom Ivan Zhang Aidan Gomez Nick Frosst Marzieh Fadaee Beyza Ermis Ahmet \u00dcst\u00fcn and Sara Hooker. 2024. Aya Expanse: Combining Research Breakthroughs for a New Multilingual Frontier. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2412.04261\u00a0[cs.CL] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2412.04261"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"J. Dauparas I. Anishchenko N. Bennett H. Bai R.\u00a0J. Ragotte L.\u00a0F. Milles B.\u00a0I.\u00a0M. Wicky A. Courbet R.\u00a0J. de Haas N. Bethel P.\u00a0J.\u00a0Y. Leung T.\u00a0F. Huddy S. Pellock D. Tischer F. Chan B. Koepnick H. Nguyen A. Kang B. Sankaran A.\u00a0K. Bera N.\u00a0P. King and D. Baker. 2022. Robust deep learning\u2013based protein sequence design using ProteinMPNN. 378 6615 (2022) 49\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.add2187","DOI":"10.1126\/science.add2187"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_16_2","unstructured":"Kevin\u00a0M. Esvelt. 2022. Credible pandemic virus identification willtrigger the immediate proliferation of agents as lethal as nuclear devices. https:\/\/www.hsgac.senate.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/imo\/media\/doc\/Esvelt%20Testimony.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_17_2","volume-title":"Synthetic Biology: Applying Engineering to Biology","year":"2005","unstructured":"2005. Synthetic Biology: Applying Engineering to Biology (Luxembourg). Publications Office."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_18_2","volume-title":"Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament: Laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act)","author":"Parliament European","year":"2024","unstructured":"European Parliament. 2024. Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament: Laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act). http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2024\/1689\/oj\/eng"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesar de\u00a0la Fuente-Nunez. 2024. AI in infectious diseases: The role of datasets. (2024). https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC11537278\/","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drup.2024.101067"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_20_2","unstructured":"Lauren Goode. 2024. A National Security Insider Does the Math on the Dangers of AI. (2024). https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/jason-matheny-national-security-insider-dangers-of-ai\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_21_2","volume-title":"AlphaFold 3 predicts the structure and interactions of all of life\u2019s molecules","author":"DeepMind Google","year":"2024","unstructured":"Google DeepMind. 2024. AlphaFold 3 predicts the structure and interactions of all of life\u2019s molecules. https:\/\/blog.google\/technology\/ai\/google-deepmind-isomorphic-alphafold-3-ai-model\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Manoj\u00a0Kumar Goshisht. 2024. Machine Learning and Deep Learning in Synthetic Biology: Key Architectures Applications and Challenges. (2024). 10.1021\/acsomega.3c05913","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c05913"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_23_2","unstructured":"Daniel Grushkin Todd Kuiken and Piers Millet. 2013. Seven Myths & Realities about Do-It-Yourself Biology. https:\/\/www.wilsoncenter.org\/sites\/default\/files\/media\/documents\/publication\/7_myths_final.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_24_2","unstructured":"Jasper G\u00f6tting Pedro Medeiros Jon\u00a0G Sanders Nathaniel Li Long Phan Karam Elabd Lennart Justen Dan Hendrycks and Seth Donoughe. 2025. Virology Capabilities Test (VCT): A Multimodal Virology Benchmark. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2504.16137\u00a0[cs.CY] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2504.16137"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_25_2","volume-title":"Managing Risks from AI-Enabled Biological Tools","author":"Halstead John","year":"2024","unstructured":"John Halstead. 2024. Managing Risks from AI-Enabled Biological Tools. https:\/\/www.governance.ai\/post\/managing-risks-from-ai-enabled-biological-tools"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thomas Hayes Roshan Rao Halil Akin Nicholas\u00a0J. Sofroniew Deniz Oktay Zeming Lin Robert Verkuil Vincent\u00a0Q. Tran Jonathan Deaton Marius Wiggert Rohil Badkundri Irhum Shafkat Jun Gong Alexander Derry Raul\u00a0S. Molina Neil Thomas Yousuf Khan Chetan Mishra Carolyn Kim Liam\u00a0J. Bartie Matthew Nemeth Patrick\u00a0D. Hsu Tom Sercu Salvatore Candido and Alexander Rives. 2024. Simulating 500 million years of evolution with a language model. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2024.07.01.600583","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.07.01.600583"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_27_2","unstructured":"Sara Hooker. 2024. On the Limitations of Compute Thresholds as a Governance Strategy. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2407.05694 [cs]http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2407.05694"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Takashi Inagaki Akari Kato Koichi Takahashi Haruka Ozaki and Genki\u00a0N. Kanda. 2023. LLMs can generate robotic scripts from goal-oriented instructions in biological laboratory automation. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2304.10267 arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2304.10267 [q-bio]","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2304.10267"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Catherine Jefferson Filippa Lentzos and Claire Marris. 2014. Synthetic Biology and Biosecurity: Challenging the \u201cMyths\u201d. (2014). https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC4139924\/","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2014.00115"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_30_2","volume-title":"Bio x AI: Policy Recommendations for a New Frontier","author":"Jeffery Nazish","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nazish Jeffery, Sarah\u00a0R. Carter, Nazish Alexanian, Oliver Crook, Samuel Curtis, Richard Moulange, Shrestha Rath, Sophie Rose, and Jennifer Clark. 2023. Bio x AI: Policy Recommendations for a New Frontier. https:\/\/fas.org\/publication\/bio-x-ai-policy-recommendations\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_31_2","unstructured":"Daniel\u00a0P. Jeong Saurabh Garg Zachary\u00a0C. Lipton and Michael Oberst. 2024. Medical Adaptation of Large Language and Vision-Language Models: Are We Making Progress? arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2411.04118\u00a0[cs.CL] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2411.04118"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_32_2","unstructured":"John Jumper Richard Evans Alexander Pritzel Tim Green Michael Figurnov Olaf Ronneberger Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool Russ Bates Augustin \u017d\u00eddek Anna Potapenko Alex Bridgland Clemens Meyer Simon A.\u00a0A. Kohl Andrew\u00a0J. Ballard Andrew Cowie Bernardino Romera-Paredes Stanislav Nikolov Rishub Jain Jonas Adler Trevor Back Stig Petersen David Reiman Ellen Clancy Michal Zielinski Martin Steinegger Michalina Pacholska Tamas Berghammer Sebastian Bodenstein David Silver Oriol Vinyals Andrew\u00a0W. Senior Koray Kavukcuoglu Pushmeet Kohli and Demis Hassabis. 2021. Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. (2021). https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41586-021-03819-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_33_2","unstructured":"David\u00a0E. Kaplan. 1996. The Cult at the End of the World. (1996). https:\/\/www.wired.com\/1996\/07\/aum\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_34_2","unstructured":"Sayash Kapoor Rishi Bommasani Kevin Klyman Shayne Longpre Ashwin Ramaswami Peter Cihon Aspen Hopkins Kevin Bankston Stella Biderman Miranda Bogen Rumman Chowdhury Alex Engler Peter Henderson Yacine Jernite Seth Lazar Stefano Maffulli Alondra Nelson Joelle Pineau Aviya Skowron Dawn Song Victor Storchan Daniel Zhang Daniel\u00a0E. Ho Percy Liang and Arvind Narayanan. 2024. On the Societal Impact of Open Foundation Models. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2403.07918\u00a0[cs.CY] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2403.07918"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Masha Karelina Joseph Noh and Ron\u00a0O. Dror. 2023. How accurately can one predict drug binding modes using AlphaFold models?https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2023.05.18.541346","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.05.18.541346"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_36_2","volume-title":"The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History","author":"Leitenberg Milton","year":"2012","unstructured":"Milton Leitenberg, Raymond\u00a0A. Zilinskas, and Jens\u00a0H. Kuhn. 2012. The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History. Harvard University Press. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/j.ctt2jbscf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_37_2","unstructured":"F Lentzos G.D. Koblentz and J Rodgers. 2022. he Urgent Need for an Overhaul of Global Biorisk Management. CTC Sentinel. 15 4 (2022). https:\/\/ctc.westpoint.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/CTC-SENTINEL-042022.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_38_2","unstructured":"Shayne Longpre Robert Mahari Anthony Chen Naana Obeng-Marnu Damien Sileo William Brannon Niklas Muennighoff Nathan Khazam Jad Kabbara Kartik Perisetla Xinyi Wu Enrico Shippole Kurt Bollacker Tongshuang Wu Luis Villa Sandy Pentland and Sara Hooker. 2023. The Data Provenance Initiative: A Large Scale Audit of Dataset Licensing and Attribution in AI. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2310.16787\u00a0[cs.CL] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2310.16787"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_39_2","volume-title":"The Thirty-eight Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems Datasets and Benchmarks Track","author":"Longpre Shayne","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shayne Longpre, Robert Mahari, Ariel\u00a0N. Lee, Campbell\u00a0S. Lund, Hamidah Oderinwale, William Brannon, Nayan Saxena, Naana Obeng-Marnu, Tobin South, Cole\u00a0J Hunter, Kevin Klyman, Christopher Klamm, Hailey Schoelkopf, Nikhil Singh, Manuel Cherep, Ahmad\u00a0Mustafa Anis, An Dinh, Caroline\u00a0Shamiso Chitongo, Da Yin, Damien Sileo, Deividas Mataciunas, Diganta Misra, Emad\u00a0A. Alghamdi, Enrico Shippole, Jianguo Zhang, Joanna Materzynska, Kun Qian, Kushagra Tiwary, Lester James\u00a0Validad Miranda, Manan Dey, Minnie Liang, Mohammed Hamdy, Niklas Muennighoff, Seonghyeon Ye, Seungone Kim, Shrestha Mohanty, Vipul Gupta, Vivek Sharma, Vu\u00a0Minh Chien, Xuhui Zhou, Yizhi LI, Caiming Xiong, Luis Villa, Stella Biderman, Hanlin Li, Daphne Ippolito, Sara Hooker, Jad Kabbara, and Alex Pentland. 2024. Consent in Crisis: The Rapid Decline of the AI Data Commons. In The Thirty-eight Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems Datasets and Benchmarks Track. https:\/\/openreview.net\/forum?id=66PcEzkf95"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_40_2","volume-title":"AI-powered biological warfare is \u2018biggest issue,\u2019 former Google exec warns","author":"Lovelace Ryan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ryan Lovelace. 2022. AI-powered biological warfare is \u2018biggest issue,\u2019 former Google exec warns. https:\/\/www.washingtontimes.com\/news\/2022\/sep\/12\/ai-powered-biological-warfare-biggest-issue-former\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_41_2","volume-title":"Biological Sequence Models in the Context of the AI Directives","author":"Maug Nicole","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nicole Maug. 2024. Biological Sequence Models in the Context of the AI Directives. https:\/\/epochai.org\/blog\/biological-sequence-models-in-the-context-of-the-ai-directives"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_42_2","unstructured":"Cade Metz. 2024. Dozens of Top Scientists Sign Effort to Prevent A.I. Bioweapons. (2024). https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/03\/08\/technology\/biologists-ai-agreement-bioweapons.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Richard Moulange Max Langenkamp Tessa Alexanian Samuel Curtis and Morgan Livingston. 2023. Towards Responsible Governance of Biological Design Tools. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2311.15936 arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2311.15936","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2311.15936"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_44_2","volume-title":"The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team Study","author":"Mouton Christopher\u00a0A.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Christopher\u00a0A. Mouton, Caleb Lucas, and Ella Guest. 2024. The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team Study. Technical Report. RAND Corporation. https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/research_reports\/RRA2977-2.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_45_2","unstructured":"Dewey Murdoch. 2023. Written testimony for Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Spending Oversight hearing on Advanced Technology. https:\/\/www.hsgac.senate.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/Murdick-Testimony.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17226\/24890"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_47_2","volume-title":"Biotechnology Research in an Age of Terrorism","author":"Press National Academies","year":"2004","unstructured":"National Academies Press. 2004. Biotechnology Research in an Age of Terrorism. National Academies Press. http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/catalog\/10827"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_48_2","unstructured":"National Science and Technology Council. 2022. Evidence-based Laboatory Biorisk Management - Science and Technology Roadmap. Health Security Threats Subcommittee (2022). https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/04-2022-NSTC-ST-Biorisk-Research-Roadmap_FINAL.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_49_2","unstructured":"National Telecommunications and Information Administration. 2024. Dual-Use Foundation Models with Widely Available Model Weights. https:\/\/www.ntia.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/ntia-ai-open-model-report.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Eric Nguyen Michael Poli Marjan Faizi Armin Thomas Callum Birch-Sykes Michael Wornow Aman Patel Clayton Rabideau Stefano Massaroli Yoshua Bengio Stefano Ermon Stephen\u00a0A. Baccus and Chris R\u00e9. 2023. HyenaDNA: Long-Range Genomic Sequence Modeling at Single Nucleotide Resolution. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2306.15794 arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2306.15794 [cs q-bio]","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2306.15794"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.AI.800-1.ipd"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_52_2","unstructured":"NSCEB. 2024. White Paper 3: Risks of AIxBio. https:\/\/www.biotech.senate.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/NSCEB_AIxBio_WP3_Risks.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_53_2","volume-title":"Building an early warning system for LLM-aided biological threat creation","year":"2024","unstructured":"OpenAI. 2024. Building an early warning system for LLM-aided biological threat creation. https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/building-an-early-warning-system-for-llm-aided-biological-threat-creation\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_54_2","volume-title":"o1 System Card","year":"2024","unstructured":"OpenAI. 2024. o1 System Card. https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/openai-o1-system-card\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_55_2","volume-title":"OpenAI and Los Alamos National Laboratory announce bioscience research partnership","year":"2024","unstructured":"OpenAI. 2024. OpenAI and Los Alamos National Laboratory announce bioscience research partnership. https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/openai-and-los-alamos-national-laboratory-work-together\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7591\/cornell\/9780801452888.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Randy\u00a0J. Read Edward\u00a0N. Baker Charles\u00a0S. Bond Elspeth\u00a0F. Garman and Mark J.\u00a0van Raaij. 2023. AlphaFold and the future of structural biology. (2023). Issue Pt 4. https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC10324484\/","DOI":"10.1107\/S2052252523004943"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_58_2","unstructured":"Anka Reuel Ben Bucknall Stephen Casper Tim Fist Lisa Soder Onni Aarne Lewis Hammond Lujain Ibrahim Alan Chan Peter Wills Markus Anderljung Ben Garfinkel Lennart Heim Andrew Trask Gabriel Mukobi Rylan Schaeffer Mauricio Baker Sara Hooker Irene Solaiman Alexandra\u00a0Sasha Luccioni Nitarshan Rajkumar Nicolas Mo\u00ebs Jeffrey Ladish Neel Guha Jessica Newman Yoshua Bengio Tobin South Alex Pentland Sanmi Koyejo Mykel\u00a0J. Kochenderfer and Robert Trager. 2024. Open Problems in Technical AI Governance. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2407.14981\u00a0[cs.CY] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2407.14981"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_59_2","volume-title":"US senators express bipartisan alarm about AI, focusing on biological attack","year":"2023","unstructured":"Reuters. 2023. US senators express bipartisan alarm about AI, focusing on biological attack. https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/technology\/us-senators-express-bipartisan-alarm-about-ai-focusing-biological-attack-2023-07-25\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_60_2","unstructured":"Luca Righetti. 2024. Towards Quantifying The Risk Of LLMs Raising Lone-Wolf Bioterrorism (forthcoming). (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.71172\/1ktf-xpxm"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anders Sandberg and Cassidy Nelson. 2020. Who Should We Fear More: Biohackers Disgruntled Postdocs or Bad Governments? A Simple Risk Chain Model of Biorisk. (2020). https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC7310205\/","DOI":"10.1089\/hs.2019.0115"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shivalika Singh Freddie Vargus Daniel Dsouza B\u00f6rje\u00a0F. Karlsson Abinaya Mahendiran Wei-Yin Ko Herumb Shandilya Jay Patel Deividas Mataciunas Laura OMahony Mike Zhang Ramith Hettiarachchi Joseph Wilson Marina Machado Luisa\u00a0Souza Moura Dominik Krzemi\u0144ski Hakimeh Fadaei Irem Erg\u00fcn Ifeoma Okoh Aisha Alaagib Oshan Mudannayake Zaid Alyafeai Vu\u00a0Minh Chien Sebastian Ruder Surya Guthikonda Emad\u00a0A. Alghamdi Sebastian Gehrmann Niklas Muennighoff Max Bartolo Julia Kreutzer Ahmet \u00dcst\u00fcn Marzieh Fadaee and Sara Hooker. 2024. Aya Dataset: An Open-Access Collection for Multilingual Instruction Tuning. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2402.06619\u00a0[cs.CL] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2402.06619","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.acl-long.620"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Emily\u00a0H. Soice Rafael Rocha Kimberlee Cordova Michael Specter and Kevin\u00a0M. Esvelt. 2023. Can large language models democratize access to dual-use biotechnology?https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2306.03809 arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2306.03809 [cs]","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2306.03809"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thomas\u00a0C. Terwilliger Dorothee Liebschner Tristan\u00a0I. Croll Christopher\u00a0J. Williams Airlie\u00a0J. McCoy Billy\u00a0K. Poon Pavel\u00a0V. Afonine Robert\u00a0D. Oeffner Jane\u00a0S. Richardson Randy\u00a0J. Read and Paul\u00a0D. Adams. 2023. AlphaFold predictions are valuable hypotheses and accelerate but do not replace experimental structure determination. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2022.11.21.517405","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.11.21.517405"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_66_2","unstructured":"The Royal Society. 2024. Science in the Age of AI. https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/-\/media\/policy\/projects\/science-in-the-age-of-ai\/science-in-the-age-of-ai-report.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_67_2","volume-title":"Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence","author":"House The White","year":"2023","unstructured":"The White House. 2023. Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence. https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2023\/11\/01\/2023-24283\/safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e9bastien Tourlet Ragousandirane Radjasandirane Julien Diharce and Alexandre\u00a0G. de Brevern. 2023. AlphaFold2 Update and Perspectives. (2023). https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2673-7426\/3\/2\/25","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedinformatics3020025"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_69_2","volume-title":"AI Safety Institute approach to evaluations","author":"Institute UK AI Safety","year":"2024","unstructured":"UK AI Safety Institute. 2024. AI Safety Institute approach to evaluations. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/ai-safety-institute-approach-to-evaluations\/ai-safety-institute-approach-to-evaluations"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_70_2","volume-title":"The Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1-2 November 2023","author":"Government UK","year":"2023","unstructured":"UK Government. 2023. The Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1-2 November 2023. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/ai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration\/the-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_71_2","volume-title":"New commitment to deepen work on severe AI risks concludes AI Seoul Summit","author":"Government UK","year":"2024","unstructured":"UK Government. 2024. New commitment to deepen work on severe AI risks concludes AI Seoul Summit. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/new-commitmentto-deepen-work-on-severe-ai-risks-concludes-ai-seoul-summit"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_72_2","volume-title":"History of the Biological Weapons Convention","author":"Nations United","unstructured":"United Nations. [n. d.]. History of the Biological Weapons Convention. https:\/\/disarmament.unoda.org\/biological-weapons\/about\/history\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_73_2","unstructured":"The United States Department\u00a0of Justice. 2010. Amerithrax Investigative Summary. (2010). https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archive\/amerithrax\/docs\/amx-investigative-summary.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_74_2","volume-title":"Biosafety Levels","author":"Sciences US Department of Health and Human","year":"2015","unstructured":"US Department of Health and Human Sciences. 2015. Biosafety Levels. https:\/\/www.phe.gov\/s3\/BioriskManagement\/biosafety\/Pages\/Biosafety-Levels.aspx"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ashish Vaswani Noam Shazeer Niki Parmar Jakob Uszkoreit Llion Jones Aidan\u00a0N. Gomez Lukasz Kaiser and Illia Polosukhin. 2023. Attention Is All You Need. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1706.03762 arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/1706.03762 [cs]","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1706.03762"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_76_2","volume-title":"What is dual-use research of concern?","author":"Organisation World Health","year":"2020","unstructured":"World Health Organisation. 2020. What is dual-use research of concern?https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/questions-and-answers\/item\/what-is-dual-use-research-of-concern"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_77_2","unstructured":"Zongzhe Xu Ritvik Gupta Wenduo Cheng Alexander Shen Junhong Shen Ameet Talwalkar and Mikhail Khodak. 2024. Specialized Foundation Models Struggle to Beat Supervised Baselines. arxiv:https:\/\/arXiv.org\/abs\/2411.02796\u00a0[cs.LG] https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2411.02796"}],"event":{"name":"FAccT '25: The 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency","location":"Athens Greece","acronym":"FAccT '25"},"container-title":["Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3715275.3732048","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]],"date-time":"2025-06-24T11:11:20Z","timestamp":1750763480000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3715275.3732048"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"references-count":76,"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3715275.3732048","10.1145\/3715275"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3715275.3732048","relation":{},"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-06-23","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}