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Embed. Comput. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This work presents SPHINCSLET, the first fully standard-compliant and area-efficient hardware implementation of the SLH-DSA algorithm, formerly known as SPHINCS+, a post-quantum digital signature scheme. SPHINCSLET is designed to be parameterizable across different security levels and hash functions, offering a balanced tradeoff between area efficiency and performance. Existing hardware implementations either feature a large area footprint to achieve fast signing and verification or adopt a coprocessor-based approach that significantly slows down these operations. SPHINCSLET addresses this gap by delivering a 4.7\u00d7 reduction in area compared to high-speed designs while achieving a 2.5\u00d7 to 5\u00d7 improvement in signing time over the most efficient coprocessor-based designs for a SHAKE256-based SPHINCS+ implementation. The SHAKE256-based SPHINCS+ FPGA implementation targeting the AMD Artix-7 requires fewer than 10.8K LUTs for any security level of SLH-DSA. Furthermore, the SHA-2-based SPHINCS+ implementation achieves a 2\u00d7 to 4\u00d7 speedup in signature generation across various security levels compared to existing SLH-DSA hardware, all while maintaining a compact area footprint of 6K to 15K LUTs. This makes it the fastest SHA-2-based SLH-DSA implementation to date. With an optimized balance of area and performance, SPHINCSLET can assist resource-constrained devices in transitioning to post-quantum cryptography.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3728469","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,7]],"date-time":"2025-04-07T07:27:52Z","timestamp":1744010872000},"page":"1-19","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["SPHINCSLET: An Area-Efficient Accelerator for the Full SPHINCS+ Digital Signature Algorithm"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0938-9547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanjay","family":"Deshpande","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical Engineering, Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science","place":["New Haven, United States"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9717-620X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongseok","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seoul National University","place":["Gwanak-gu, Korea (the Republic of)"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6199-363X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cansu","family":"Karakuzu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seoul National University","place":["Gwanak-gu, Korea (the Republic of)"]},{"name":"Hasso Plattner Institute, University of Potsdam","place":["Gwanak-gu, Korea (the Republic of)"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9721-3640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Szefer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale University","place":["New Haven, United States"]},{"name":"Northwestern University","place":["New Haven, United States"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6412-2926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunheung","family":"Paek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seoul National University","place":["Gwanak-gu, Korea (the Republic of)"]}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","article-title":"Status report on the third round of the NIST post-quantum cryptography standardization process","author":"Alagic Gorjan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gorjan Alagic, Daniel Apon, David Cooper, Quynh Dang, Thinh Dang, John Kelsey, Jacob Lichtinger, Carl Miller, Dustin Moody, Rene Peralta et\u00a0al. 2022. Status report on the third round of the NIST post-quantum cryptography standardization process. US Department of Commerce, NIST (2022).https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/publications\/status-report-third-round-nist-post-quantum-cryptography-standardization-process","journal-title":"US Department of Commerce, NIST"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.46586\/tches.v2018.i1.18-39"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/DSD51259.2020.00046"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","unstructured":"Daniel J. Bernstein Christoph Dobraunig Maria Eichlseder Scott Fluhrer Stefan-Lukas Gazdag Andreas H\u00fclsing Panos Kampanakis Stefan K\u00f6lbl Tanja Lange Martin M. Lauridsenet al.2017. SPHINCS+ - Submission to the NIST Post-quantum Cryptography Project. Retrieved from https:\/\/sphincs.org"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","unstructured":"Daniel J. Bernstein Christoph Dobraunig Maria Eichlseder Scott Fluhrer Stefan-Lukas Gazdag Andreas H\u00fclsing Panos Kampanakis Stefan K\u00f6lbl Tanja Lange Martin M. Lauridsen et al. 2024. SPHINCS+-software. Retrieved from https:\/\/github.com\/sphincs\/sphincsplus"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-46800-5_15"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IPDPSW52791.2021.00034"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38348-9_19"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/11894063_24"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","unstructured":"Information Technology Laboratory Computer Security Division. 2017. Post-quantum cryptography standardization\u2014Post-quantum cryptography: CSRC. Retrieved from https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/projects\/post-quantum-cryptography\/post-quantum-cryptography-standardization"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","volume-title":"Selected Areas in Cryptography Conference (SAC\u201923)","author":"Deshpande Sanjay","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sanjay Deshpande, Chuanqi Xu, Mamuri Nawan, Kashif Nawaz, and Jakub Szefer. 2023. Fast and efficient hardware implementation of HQC. 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