{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T15:01:57Z","timestamp":1784300517236,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"ISSTA","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Softw. Eng."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Solana is an emerging blockchain platform, recognized for its high throughput and low transaction costs, positioning it as a preferred infrastructure for Decentralized Finance (DeFi), Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), and other Web 3.0 applications. In the Solana ecosystem, transaction initiators submit various instructions to interact with a diverse range of Solana smart contracts, among which are decentralized exchanges (DEXs) that utilize automated market makers (AMMs), allowing users to trade cryptocurrencies directly on the blockchain without the need for intermediaries. Despite the high throughput and low transaction costs of Solana, the advantages have exposed Solana to bot spamming for financial exploitation, resulting in the prevalence of failed transactions and network congestion.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>Prior work on Solana has mainly focused on the evaluation of the performance of the Solana blockchain, particularly scalability and transaction throughput, as well as on the improvement of smart contract security, leaving a gap in understanding the characteristics and implications of failed transactions on Solana. To address this gap, we conducted a large-scale empirical study of failed transactions on Solana, using a curated dataset of over 1.5 billion failed transactions across more than 72 million blocks. Specifically, we first characterized the failed transactions in terms of their initiators, failure-triggering programs, and temporal patterns, and compared their block positions and transaction costs with those of successful transactions. We then categorized the failed transactions by the error messages in their error logs, and investigated how specific programs and transaction initiators are associated with these errors.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            We find that transaction failure rates on Solana exhibit recurring daily patterns, and demonstrate a strong positive correlation with the volume of failed transactions, with bots on Solana experiencing a high transaction failure rate of 58.43%. We identify ten distinct error types in the error logs of failed transactions, with\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">price or profit not met<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">invalid status<\/jats:italic>\n            errors accounting for 67.18% of all failed transactions. AMMs primarily experience\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">invalid status<\/jats:italic>\n            errors among failed transactions, while DEX aggregators are more commonly affected by\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">price or profit not met<\/jats:italic>\n            errors. Among transaction initiators, bots encounter a broader range of errors due to their high-frequency trading and complex interactions with smart contracts. In contrast, human users experience a more limited range of errors. Based on our findings, we provide recommendations to mitigate transaction failures on Solana and outline future research directions.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3728943","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,22]],"date-time":"2025-06-22T10:52:56Z","timestamp":1750589576000},"page":"1489-1512","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Why Does My Transaction Fail? A First Look at Failed Transactions on the Solana Blockchain"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9048-1930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoye","family":"Zheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7657-6653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiyuan","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4367-7201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Singapore Management University, Singapore, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5777-1679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Difan","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hangzhou High-Tech Zone (Binjiang) Institute of Blockchain and Data Security, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4111-4189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaohu","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Alchemy Official Website. https:\/\/www.alchemy.com\/solana Accessed: 2025-04-08"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. The Arbitrum Network Explained. https:\/\/www.hord.fi\/blog\/arbitrum-network-explained Accessed: 2025-01-02"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Associated Token Account. https:\/\/spl.solana.com\/associated-token-account Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Chainlink Data Store Program. https:\/\/solscan.io\/account\/cjg3oHmg9uuPsP8D6g29NWvhySJkdYdAo9D25PRbKXJ Accessed: 2025-01-21"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Jupiter Swap API V6. https:\/\/station.jup.ag\/docs\/apis\/swap-api Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Priority Fees: Understanding Solana\u2019s Transaction Fee Mechanics. https:\/\/www.helius.dev\/blog\/priority-fees-understanding-solanas-transaction-fee-mechanics Accessed: 2025-01-02"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Raydium. https:\/\/docs.raydium.io\/raydium Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Sequence Enforcer. https:\/\/solscan.io\/account\/GDDMwNyyx8uB6zrqwBFHjLLG3TBYk2F8Az4yrQC5RzMp Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. Token Spammers Rug Pulls and Sniper Bots: An Analysis of the Ecosystem of Tokens in Ethereum and in the Binance Smart Chain (BNB) author=Cernera Federico and La Morgia Massimo and Mei Alessandro and Sassi Francesco booktitle=32nd USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 23) pages=3349\u20133366 year=2023."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","unstructured":"[n. d.]. What are the Reasons for Failed Transactions? https:\/\/info.etherscan.com\/reason-for-failed-transaction\/ Accessed: 2025-01-02"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","unstructured":"2023. Chainlink Data Feeds Security Researcher\u2019s Perspective. https:\/\/ackee.xyz\/blog\/chainlink-data-feeds\/ Accessed: 2025-01-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","volume-title":"Network Performance Report","year":"2023","unstructured":"2023. Network Performance Report: July 2023. https:\/\/solana.com\/news\/network-performance-report-july-2023 Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","unstructured":"2023. Program logged: \u201cError: memory allocation failed out of memory\u201d. https:\/\/solana.stackexchange.com\/questions\/6876\/program-logged-error-memory-allocation-failed-out-of-memory Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","unstructured":"2023. Solana: Past Present and Future. https:\/\/research.nansen.ai\/articles\/solana-past-present-and-future Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"2023. Transaction 3HdLQWvpANEHTzhjUdQ71m81DegUCckpqXqgU2oWKBiCSfrdGuDqXFWg41Qidch26KwtjpRh-Vj7GqNvXHmGQ2njv. https:\/\/bit.ly\/4irDawA Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","unstructured":"2024. 9uW2TqLyfYyrcNVrgCy4jPpqDKQoBZhXWypzzFxbixQE. https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/solana\/comments\/1cc9g05\/9uw2tqlyfyyrcnvrgcy4jppqdkqobzhxwypzzfxbixqe\/ Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","unstructured":"2024. Bots suspected of pushing Solana over Ethereum \u2014 Research. https:\/\/cointelegraph.com\/news\/bots-pushing-solana-over-ethereum-research Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","unstructured":"2024. Common JSON Data Structures for Solana RPC Methods. https:\/\/solana.com\/docs\/rpc\/json-structures Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","unstructured":"2024. Consensus on Solana. https:\/\/www.helius.dev\/blog\/consensus-on-solana Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"2024. Fees on Solana. https:\/\/solana.com\/docs\/core\/fees Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","unstructured":"2024. Mainnet Beta Validators: Please upgrade to. https:\/\/x.com\/SolanaStatus\/status\/1800027464896328153 Accessed: 2025-01-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"2024. Memecoin Mania Drives Solana Toward All-Time Highs. https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2024-03-18\/slerf-snap-memecoin-mania-drives-solana-toward-all-time-highs Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","unstructured":"2024. Raydium says Insufficient SOL balance if I try to buy anything more than 90% of my balance - any advice? https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/solana\/comments\/qo15jc\/raydium_says_insufficient_sol_balance_if_i_try_to Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana Account Model. https:\/\/solana.com\/docs\/core\/accounts Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana: Efficiently Minimizing Transaction Duration. https:\/\/web3engineering.co.uk\/solana-ioc-orders Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana MEV: An Introduction. https:\/\/www.helius.dev\/blog\/solana-mev-an-introduction Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana MEV Bots: A Detailed Explanation. https:\/\/www.coinfeeds.ai\/crypto-blog\/solana-mev-bots Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana Network Faces High Failure Rate in Transactions Amid Memecoin Mania. https:\/\/coinmarketcap.com\/academy\/article\/solana-network-faces-high-failure-rate-in-transactions-amid-memecoin-mania Accessed: 2025-01-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana struggles: Record 75% of user txs are failing... or are they? https:\/\/cointelegraph.com\/news\/solana-struggling-record-seventy-five-percent-trasnactions-fail-memecoin-mania Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana Terminology. https:\/\/solana.com\/docs\/terminology Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana Transactions. https:\/\/github.com\/solana-foundation\/developer-content\/blob\/main\/docs\/core\/transactions.md Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","unstructured":"2024. Solana Tx Fail Rate. https:\/\/dune.com\/scarn_eth\/solana-tx-fail-rate Accessed: 2025-01-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","unstructured":"2024. Token Account Frozen! Anyone Know how to fix? https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/solana\/comments\/1ajnurc\/token_account_frozen_anyone_know_how_to_fix\/ Accessed: 2024-10-28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","unstructured":"2024. 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