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They tend to display many GUI widgets on a single GUI page, which, unfortunately, can cause more redundant test actions\u2014actions with similar functions\u2014to automatic testing approaches. The effectiveness of existing testing approaches is still limited, suggesting the necessity of reducing the test effort on redundant actions. In this article, we first identify three types of GUI structures that can cause redundant actions and then propose a novel approach, called action equivalence evaluation, to find the actions with similar functions by exploiting both GUI structure and functionality. By integrating this approach with existing testing tools, the test efficacy can be improved.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    We conducted experiments on 17 large-scale Android apps, including three industrial apps\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Google News<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Messenger<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">WeChat<\/jats:italic>\n                    . The results show that more instructions can be covered, and more crashes can be detected, compared to the state-of-the-art Android testing tools. Twenty-nine real bugs were found in our experiment, and moreover, 760 bugs over 40 versions of\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">WeChat<\/jats:italic>\n                    had been detected in the real test environment during a 3-month testing period.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3729225","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]],"date-time":"2025-04-11T11:38:21Z","timestamp":1744371501000},"page":"1-50","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improving Test Efficacy for Large-Scale Android Applications by Exploiting GUI and Functional Equivalence"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4758-3285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yifei","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Software Institute, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4011-5350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minxue","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Software Institute, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3200-3068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haochuan","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tencent, Guangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7060-4109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuetang","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tencent, Guangzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0104-2731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4794-1652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linzhang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3090-9568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuandong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3278186.3278187"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2804345.2804348"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2351676.2351717"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MS.2014.55"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2393596.2393666"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1985793.1985795"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2509136.2509549"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2970276.2970313"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","first-page":"93","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/ACM 1st International Conference on Automation of Software Test","author":"Cai Tianqin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tianqin Cai, Zhao Zhang, and Ping Yang. 2020. 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