{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T04:49:06Z","timestamp":1792644546607,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","funder":[{"name":"Shenzhen Fundamental Research Scheme","award":["JCYJ20230807140410022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20230807140410022"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006374","name":"Innovation and Technology Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GHP\/079\/22SZ, ITS\/034\/23FP"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GHP\/079\/22SZ, ITS\/034\/23FP"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006374","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"UGC\/GRF","award":["15211024, 15215421"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["15211024, 15215421"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the absence of spatial-temporal traceability, static optical codes present considerable security risks and are thus confined to limited applications (for instance, transactions using static QR codes for mobile payments are capped at 500 RMB or about 76 USD daily in China). While dynamic codes that update periodically can mitigate these issues, they necessitate additional hardware, such as screens and computing devices. To overcome these limitations, we introduce Voltmark, a novel approach that enhances the spatial-temporal traceability of static optical codes to the level of dynamic ones through the use of voltmarks---natural watermarks generated by AC flickering during image capture indoors. Voltmarks carry unique temporal and spatial characteristics of the AC and bulbs, allowing for the verification of the time and location where code photographs were taken. This functionality effectively thwarts various security threats and fraudulent activities. Extensive evaluation demonstrates that Voltmark maintains an average accuracy of 93.3% in spatial tracing and delivers a time resolution of 42ms (equivalent to scanning at 24 fps). These outcomes solidly establish Voltmark as a reliable technique for boosting the security of optical codes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3729500","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T21:21:56Z","timestamp":1750281716000},"page":"1-23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Everytime Everywhere All at Once: Enhancing Temporal-Spatial Traceability of Optical Codes through Voltmarks"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6530-9824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingyu","family":"Tong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8245-3852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donghui","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2263-8297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zheng","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9651-0811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PolyU Shenzhen Research Institute, China and and The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","first-page":"2024","article-title":"Food faux pas: China diner shocked by us$60,000 bill for meal after accidentally posting photo of dish ordering qr code online","author":"Lu F.","year":"2023","unstructured":"F. 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