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Four different near-infrared spectroscopy metrics\u2014Oxygenated Haemoglobin (HbO2), Deoxygenated Haemoglobin (HHb), Total Haemoglobin (HT) and Haemoglobin Difference (HbDiff)\u2014were investigated to determine their contributions to pain assessment and identify which metric offers the most reliable performance. Across all models, both traditional and deep learning, HbDiff consistently outperformed the other metrics in terms of classification accuracy. The Multi-Kernel Fully Convolutional Network Hybrid with Long Short-Term Memory (MK-FCN-LSTM) model, particularly when utilising the HbDiff metric, achieved superior performance with a binary classification accuracy of 64.73%. These findings suggest that haemoglobin difference may provide more sensitive and reliable features for pain assessment, highlighting its potential as a key biomarker in fNIRS-based pain detection systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3757931","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T15:18:31Z","timestamp":1754061511000},"page":"1-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Pain Assessment Using Multi-Kernel-FCN-LSTM and Haemoglobin Difference in fNIRS"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2557-7928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ghazal","family":"Bargshady","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4372-0772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sumair","family":"Aziz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4123-1302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefanos","family":"Gkikas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8454-1450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manolis","family":"Tsiknakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2279-7041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roland","family":"Goecke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Systems and Computing, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8393-4241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul","family":"Fernandez Rojas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00359"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3292500.3330701"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.113305"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.560878"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239233"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.11.050"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2014.3748"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2020.3021755"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2407"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-023-00810-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpain.2023.1150264"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42098-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2024.1320189"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACIIW63320.2024.00012"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2020.103589"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACIIW.2019.8925020"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stefanos Gkikas Raul Fernandez Rojas and Manolis Tsiknakis. 2025. 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