{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T15:09:03Z","timestamp":1780672143612,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","funder":[{"name":"University of York\u2019s Centre for Assuring Autonomy (funded by a Lloyd\u2019s Register Foundation grant), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) projects","award":["EP\/W011239\/1 and EP\/V026747\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/W011239\/1 and EP\/V026747\/1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Auton. Adapt. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Existing classification frameworks for AI and autonomous systems are being outpaced by recent advancements in AI technologies. This limits their applicability to modern intelligent systems, particularly\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">agentic AI systems<\/jats:italic>\n            (autonomous systems that leverage foundation models to achieve wide-ranging, multi-layered goals). To address this deficiency, we introduce INSYTE, a multi-faceted framework that supports the classification of AI systems ranging from traditional rule-based systems to cutting-edge embodied AI and agentic systems. To that end, INSYTE considers the essential characteristics of an AI system across eight key dimensions grouped into four categories: system design (\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">underspecification<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">adaptiveness<\/jats:italic>\n            ); functionality (\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">breadth<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">depth<\/jats:italic>\n            ); operating environment (\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">diversity<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">dynamism<\/jats:italic>\n            ); and independence from human operational control (\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">intervention<\/jats:italic>\n            and\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">oversight<\/jats:italic>\n            ). Different AI systems (or versions of systems) yield different \u2018patterns\u2019 on an eight-axis radar chart that INSYTE uses to provide an immediate visual summary of an AI system\u2019s overall capability and a detailed representation of its individual characteristics. The INSYTE framework aligns with OECD\u2019s definition of deployed AI systems, which is becoming the standard definition used by legislators and developers worldwide.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3760424","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T15:25:04Z","timestamp":1755703504000},"page":"1-39","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["INSYTE: A Classification Framework for Traditional to Agentic AI Systems"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4467-3288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zoe","family":"Porter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2678-9260","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Radu","family":"Calinescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Centre for Assuring Autonomy, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6972-0511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ernest","family":"Lim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ufonia Ltd, Oxford, UK and Centre for Assuring Autonomy, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2469-0224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria","family":"Hodge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Assuring Autonomy, University of York, York, 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UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1351-8127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Lawton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Improvement Academy, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4745-4272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"McDermid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Assuring Autonomy, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0921-5908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Molloy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Assuring Autonomy, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8323-1821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helen","family":"Monkhouse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HORIBA MIRA Ltd, Nuneaton, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8797-4216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phillip","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"York Law School, University of York, York, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5222-2439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Noordhof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, University of York, York, 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