{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T17:21:32Z","timestamp":1778692892630,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"6","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000781","name":"European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101170158 - WildfireTwins"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101170158 - WildfireTwins"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000781","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Graph."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>We present a novel combustion simulation framework to model fire phenomena across solids, liquids, and gases. Our approach extends traditional fluid solvers by incorporating multi-species thermodynamics and reactive transport for fuel, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and residuals. Combustion reactions are governed by stoichiometry-dependent heat release, allowing an accurate simulation of premixed and diffusive flames with varying intensity and composition. We support a wide range of scenarios including jet fires, water suppression (sprays and sprinklers), fuel evaporation, and starvation conditions. Our framework enables interactive heat sources, fire detectors, and realistic rendering of flames (e.g., laminar-to-turbulent transitions and blue-to-orange color shifts). Our key contributions include the tight coupling of species dynamics with thermodynamic feedback, evaporation modeling, and a hybrid SPH-grid representation for the efficient simulation of extinguishing fires. We validate our method through numerous experiments that demonstrate its versatility in both indoor and outdoor fire scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3763338","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T17:15:39Z","timestamp":1764868539000},"page":"1-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Fire-X: Extinguishing Fire with Stoichiometric Heat Release"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"44","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6874-2009","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helge","family":"Wrede","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kiel University, Kiel, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3464-900X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anton","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kiel University, Kiel, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7590-8482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarker Miraz","family":"Mahfuz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kiel University, Kiel, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2374-346X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojtek","family":"Palubicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1621-325X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominik","family":"Michels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KAUST, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1937-9797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00f6ren","family":"Pirk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kiel University, Kiel, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","unstructured":"A. T. \u00c1fra. 2025. Intel\u00ae Open Image Denoise. https:\/\/www.openimagedenoise.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_1","volume-title":"ACM SIGGRAPH 2019 Talks (SIGGRAPH '19)","author":"Aguilera G.","unstructured":"G. Aguilera and J. Johansson. 2019. Avengers: Endgame, a new approach for combustion simulations. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2019 Talks (SIGGRAPH '19). ACM, Article 39."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/cjfr-2018-0138"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Bridson. 2015. Fluid simulation for computer graphics. AK Peters\/CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315266008"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_5_1","volume-title":"ACM SIGGRAPH 2007 Courses. ACM, 1\u201381","author":"Bridson R.","unstructured":"R. Bridson and M. M\u00fcller-Fischer. 2007. Fluid simulation. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2007 Courses. ACM, 1\u201381."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G. Cao J. Railio E. F. Curd M. Hyttinen P. Liu H. M. Mathisen D. Belkowska-Woloczko M. Justo-Alonso P. White C. Coxon and T. A. Wenaas. 2020. Chapter 9 - Air-handling processes. In Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook (Second Edition). Academic Press 417\u2013496.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816780-9.00009-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/vis.4340050104"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. Clavet P. Beaudoin and P. Poulin. 2005. Particle-based viscoelastic fluid simulation. In ACM SIGGRAPH\/Eurographics SCA. 219\u2013228.","DOI":"10.1145\/1073368.1073400"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_9_1","volume-title":"Modeling Wildland Fires","author":"Coen J L.","year":"2013","unstructured":"J L. Coen. 2013. Modeling Wildland Fires :. National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Boulder, CO:. 2013-02-04."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-12-023.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_11_1","unstructured":"E. Coumans and Y. Bai. 2016\u20132021. PyBullet a Python module for physics simulation for games robotics and machine learning. http:\/\/pybullet.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1134\/S1995080219050056"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_13_1","volume-title":"Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '01)","author":"Fedkiw R.","unstructured":"R. Fedkiw, J. Stam, and H. W. Jensen. 2001. Visual simulation of smoke. In Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '01). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 15\u201322."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/882262.882336"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3450626.3459954"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1276377.1276436"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y. Hong D. Zhu X. Qiu and Z. Wang. 2010. Geometry-based control of fire simulation. The Visual Computer 26 9 (01 Sep 2010) 1217\u20131228.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-009-0403-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1531326.1531347"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I. Ihm B. Kang and D. Cha. 2004. Animation of reactive gaseous fluids through chemical kinetics. In ACM SIGGRAPH\/Eurographics SCA. Eurographics Association 203\u2013212.","DOI":"10.1145\/1028523.1028550"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-21-3141-2021"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_21_1","volume-title":"Visual simulation of fire-flakes synchronized with flame. The Visual Computer 33 (06","author":"Kim T.","year":"2017","unstructured":"T. Kim, E. Hong, J. Im, D. Yang, Y. Kim, and C.-H. Kim. 2017. Visual simulation of fire-flakes synchronized with flame. The Visual Computer 33 (06 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1360612.1360649"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_23_1","volume-title":"2014 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems. 313\u2013321","author":"Kinateder M.","unstructured":"M. Kinateder, E. Ronchi, D. Nilsson, M. Kobes, M. M\u00fcller, P. Pauli, and A. M\u00fchlberger. 2014. Virtual reality for fire evacuation research. In 2014 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems. 313\u2013321."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3658192"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_25_1","unstructured":"K. A. Kroos and M. C. Potter. 2014. Thermodynamics for Engineers. Cengage Learning."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_26_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Method for Avoiding the Acoustic CFL Condition for Compressible Flow","volume":"28","author":"Kwatra N.","year":"2009","unstructured":"N. Kwatra, I. Essa, A. Sch\u00f6dl, N. Thuerey, C. Wojtan, and G. Turk. 2009. A Method for Avoiding the Acoustic CFL Condition for Compressible Flow. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) 28, 5 (2009), 1\u20138.","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG)"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_27_1","volume-title":"Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '02)","author":"Lamorlette A.","unstructured":"A. Lamorlette and N. Foster. 2002. Structural modeling of flames for a production environment. In Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '02). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 729\u2013735."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. Lapointe N. Wimer J. Glusman A. Makowiecki J. Daily G. Rieker and P. Hamlington. 2020. Efficient simulation of turbulent diffusion flames in OpenFOAM using adaptive mesh refinement. Fire Safety Journal 111 (01 2020) 102934.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2019.102934"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_29_1","volume-title":"CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and physical data","author":"Lide D. R.","unstructured":"D. R. Lide. 1995. CRC handbook of chemistry and physics: a ready-reference book of chemical and physical data. CRC press."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2019.104616"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Linn J. Reisner J. Colman and J. Winterkamp. 2002. Studying wildfire behavior using FIRETEC. International Journal of Wildland Fire 11 (11 2002) 233\u2013246.","DOI":"10.1071\/WF02007"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_32_1","volume-title":"Retrieved","author":"Linstrom P. J.","year":"2025","unstructured":"P. J. Linstrom and W. G. Mallard. 2025. NIST Chemistry WebBook. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Retrieved May 23, 2025."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_33_1","volume-title":"FlameForge: Combustion of Generalized Wooden Structures. ACM SIGGRAPH\/Eurographics Symposium on Computer Animation","author":"Liu D.","year":"2025","unstructured":"D. Liu, J. Klein, F. Rist, W. Pa\u0142ubicki, S. Pirk, and D. L. Michels. 2025. FlameForge: Combustion of Generalized Wooden Structures. ACM SIGGRAPH\/Eurographics Symposium on Computer Animation (2025)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. Liu T. An Z. Gong and I. Hagiwara. 2012. Physically based simulation of solid objects' burning. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 110\u2013120.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-29050-3_10"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-009-0344-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2006.51"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1141911.1141960"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_38_1","volume-title":"Purely Buoyant Diffusion Flames: Some Experimental Results. Final Report NBSIR 79-1910","author":"McCaffrey B J.","year":"1910","unstructured":"B J. McCaffrey. 1979. Purely Buoyant Diffusion Flames: Some Experimental Results. Final Report NBSIR 79-1910. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/Legacy\/IR\/nbsir79-1910.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_39_1","unstructured":"K. McGrattan R. McDermott C. Weinschenk and G. Forney. 2013. Fire Dynamics Simulator Users Guide Sixth Edition."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_40_1","unstructured":"A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. 1997. IUPAC Gold Book: Compendium of Chemical Terminology. Blackwell Scientific Publications. https:\/\/goldbook.iupac.org"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z. Melek and J. Keyser. 2002. Interactive simulation of fire. Pacific Graphics (2002) 431\u2013432.","DOI":"10.1109\/PCCGA.2002.1167889"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"W. Mell M. Jenkins J. Gould and P. Cheney. 2007. A Physics Based Approach to Modeling Grassland Fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire (2007).","DOI":"10.1071\/WF06002"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_43_1","first-page":"12","article-title":"Modeling and simulation of transport phenomena in fire engineering","volume":"80","author":"Merci B.","year":"2016","unstructured":"B. Merci and T. Beji. 2016. Modeling and simulation of transport phenomena in fire engineering. Fire Safety Journal 80 (2016), 12\u201322.","journal-title":"Fire Safety Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Merci and T. Beji. 2022. Fluid mechanics aspects of fire and smoke dynamics in enclosures. CRC press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003204374"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_45_1","unstructured":"V. Mihalef B. Unlusu D. Metaxas M. Sussman and M. Hussaini. 2006. Physics based boiling simulation. 317\u2013324."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2487228.2487235"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/566654.566643"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jcph.2001.6812"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3526213"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_50_1","volume-title":"ACM SIGGRAPH 2019 Talks. 1\u20132.","author":"Nielsen M. B.","unstructured":"M. B. Nielsen, K. Stamatelos, M. Bojsen-Hansen, and R. Bridson. 2019. Physics-based combustion simulation in bifrost. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2019 Talks. 1\u20132."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3072959.3016963"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_52_1","unstructured":"V. Pegoraro and S. G. Parker. 2006. Physically-based Realistic Fire Rendering. EG Nat. Phenom. (2006) 51\u201359."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N. Peters. 2000. Turbulent Combustion. Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511612701"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_54_1","unstructured":"M. Pharr W. Jakob and G. Humphreys. 2016. Physically Based Rendering: From Theory to Implementation (3rd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3130800.3130814"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_56_1","volume-title":"Compact Poisson Filters for Fast Fluid Simulation. In ACM SIGGRAPH","author":"Rabbani A. H.","year":"2022","unstructured":"A. H. Rabbani, J.-P. Guertin, D. Rioux-Lavoie, A. Schoentgen, K. Tong, A. Sirois-Vigneux, and D. Nowrouzezahrai. 2022. Compact Poisson Filters for Fast Fluid Simulation. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2022. ACM, New York, NY, USA, Article 35, 9 pages."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_57_1","first-page":"1099","article-title":"The heat of combustion\u2014getting it right","volume":"88","author":"Schmidt-Rohr K.","year":"2011","unstructured":"K. Schmidt-Rohr. 2011. The heat of combustion\u2014getting it right. Journal of Chemical Education 88, 8 (2011), 1099\u20131104.","journal-title":"Journal of Chemical Education"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jchemed.5b00333"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_59_1","volume-title":"Stable Fluids. Proc. of ACM SIGGRAPH","author":"Stam J.","year":"1999","unstructured":"J. Stam. 1999. Stable Fluids. Proc. of ACM SIGGRAPH (1999), 121\u2013128."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_60_1","volume-title":"Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '95)","author":"Stam J.","unstructured":"J. Stam and E. Fiume. 1995. Depicting fire and other gaseous phenomena using diffusion processes. In Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '95). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 129\u2013136."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315372082"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2601097.2601176"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_63_1","unstructured":"H. Versteeg and W. Malalasekera. 2007. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics e-book. Pearson Education. https:\/\/books.google.de\/books?id=dlC8MgEACAAJ"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. K. Westbrook and F. L. Dryer. 1981. Simplified reaction mechanisms for the oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels in flames. Combustion science and technology 27 1\u20132 (1981) 31\u201343.","DOI":"10.1080\/00102208108946970"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_65_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 14th IEEE Visualization 2003 (VIS'03)","author":"Zhao Y.","unstructured":"Y. Zhao, X. Wei, Z. Fan, A. Kaufman, and H. Qin. 2003. Voxels on Fire. In Proceedings of the 14th IEEE Visualization 2003 (VIS'03) (VIS '03). IEEE Computer Society, USA, 36."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Graphics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3763338","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T21:11:22Z","timestamp":1764969082000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3763338"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3763338"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3763338","relation":{},"ISSN":["0730-0301","1557-7368"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0730-0301","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7368","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-05-23","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-09","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-12-04","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}