{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T14:32:08Z","timestamp":1782484328404,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Web"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Blockchain technology has driven the development of Decentralized Applications (DApps) in areas such as decentralized finance. However, as application scenarios become more complex, the limitations of computational resources and costs gradually lead to insufficient performance. Large Language Models (LLMs), as a promising technology, have the potential to enhance blockchain\u2019s capabilities in complex task governance. However, due to factors such as consensus mechanisms, it is challenging to directly integrate them with blockchain. To address this issue, this article proposes and implements a general framework for integrating LLMs with blockchain data, C-LLM, which successfully overcomes interoperability barriers between the two. By combining semantic relevance evaluation and truth discovery techniques, this article presents an innovative data aggregation method, SenteTruth, which effectively improves the correctness and credibility of data generated by LLMs. To validate the framework\u2019s effectiveness, we construct a dataset containing three types of questions, covering Q&amp;A records between 10 oracle nodes and 5 LLM models. Experimental results show that, in the presence of 40% malicious nodes, the proposed method improves data correctness by an average of 17.74% compared with the optimal baseline. This research not only provides an innovative solution for the intelligent application of smart contracts but also demonstrates the potential for deep integration of LLMs and blockchain, driving the development of smarter and more complex application scenarios for smart contracts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3767296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,11]],"date-time":"2025-09-11T11:41:22Z","timestamp":1757590882000},"page":"1-21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Connecting Large Language Models with Blockchain: Making Smart Contracts Smarter"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4686-6289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xueying","family":"Zeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2704-7094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youquan","family":"Xian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1591-2324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duancheng","family":"Xuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2334-3943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danping","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0250-5374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunpei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7468-8918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junhan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1073-6068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2583-9112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, Guangxi Normal University","place":["Guilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","article-title":"How to make your completions outputs consistent with the new seed parameter","author":"Anadkat Shyamal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shyamal Anadkat. 2023. How to make your completions outputs consistent with the new seed parameter. Retrieved from https:\/\/cookbook.openai.com\/examples\/reproducible_outputs_with_the_seed_parameter","journal-title":"https:\/\/cookbook.openai.com\/examples\/reproducible_outputs_with_the_seed_parameter"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3471140"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","article-title":"ASTRAEA: A decentralized blockchain oracle","author":"Berryhill Ryan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ryan Berryhill and Andreas Veneris. 2019. ASTRAEA: A decentralized blockchain oracle. IEEE Blockchain Technical Briefs (2019), 1145\u20131152.","journal-title":"IEEE Blockchain Technical Briefs"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Chainlink 2.0: Next steps in the evolution of decentralized oracle networks","volume":"1","author":"Breidenbach Lorenz","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lorenz Breidenbach, Christian Cachin, Benedict Chan, Alex Coventry, Steve Ellis, Ari Juels, Farinaz Koushanfar, Andrew Miller, Brendan Magauran, Daniel Moroz, et\u00a0al. 2021. Chainlink 2.0: Next steps in the evolution of decentralized oracle networks. Chainlink Labs 1 (2021), 1\u2013136.","journal-title":"Chainlink Labs"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","article-title":"Oracul System","author":"Brodetski Roman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Roman Brodetski. 2017. Oracul System. Retrieved from https:\/\/gist.github.com\/RomanBrodetski","journal-title":"https:\/\/gist.github.com\/RomanBrodetski"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","article-title":"SchellingCoin: A Minimal-Trust Universal Data Feed","author":"Buterin Vitalik","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vitalik Buterin. 2014. SchellingCoin: A Minimal-Trust Universal Data Feed. Retrieved from https:\/\/blog.ethereum.org\/2014\/03\/28\/schellingcoin-a-minimal-trust-universal-data-feed","journal-title":"https:\/\/blog.ethereum.org\/2014\/03\/28\/schellingcoin-a-minimal-trust-universal-data-feed"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","article-title":"Generative AI-driven human digital twin in IoT-healthcare: A comprehensive survey","author":"Chen Jiayuan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jiayuan Chen, You Shi, Changyan Yi, Hongyang Du, Jiawen Kang, and Dusit Niyato. 2024. Generative AI-driven human digital twin in IoT-healthcare: A comprehensive survey. IEEE Internet of Things Journal 11, 21 (2024), 34749\u201334773.","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2024.3366560"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3308717"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2023.3318961"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2020.102067"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-20984-0_26"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.007.2200906"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","volume-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","author":"Huang Yuzhen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yuzhen Huang, Yuzhuo Bai, Zhihao Zhu, Junlei Zhang, Jinghan Zhang, Tangjun Su, Junteng Liu, Chuancheng Lv, Yikai Zhang, Jiayi Lei, Yao Fu, Maosong Sun, and Junxian He. 2023. C-Eval: A multi-level multi-discipline chinese evaluation suite for foundation models. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","article-title":"AIGC-driven real-time interactive 4D traffic scene generation in vehicular networks","author":"Li Xiaolong","year":"2025","unstructured":"Xiaolong Li, Ruiting Deng, Jianhao Wei, Xin Wu, Jiayuan Chen, Changyan Yi, Jun Cai, Dusit Niyato, and Xuemin Shen. 2025. AIGC-driven real-time interactive 4D traffic scene generation in vehicular networks. IEEE Network (2025), 1\u20131.","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2897350.2897352"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3150789"},{"issue":"12","key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","first-page":"3268","article-title":"Extending on-chain trust to off-chain\u2013trustworthy blockchain data collection using trusted execution environment (tee)","volume":"71","author":"Liu Chunchi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chunchi Liu, Hechuan Guo, Minghui Xu, Shengling Wang, Dongxiao Yu, Jiguo Yu, and Xiuzhen Cheng. 2022. Extending on-chain trust to off-chain\u2013trustworthy blockchain data collection using trusted execution environment (tee). IEEE Trans. Comput. 71, 12 (2022), 3268\u20133280.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2024.3399837"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","article-title":"Proxying is enough: Security of proxying in TLS oracles and AEAD context unforgeability","author":"Luo Zhongtang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhongtang Luo, Yanxue Jia, Yaobin Shen, and Aniket Kate. 2024. Proxying is enough: Security of proxying in TLS oracles and AEAD context unforgeability. Cryptology ePrint Archive (2024).","journal-title":"Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3597503.3639187"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","article-title":"A Decentralized Oracle Service Network to Boost Blockchain Usability with Real World Data and Computation Power","author":"Network D.","year":"2019","unstructured":"D. Network. 2019. A Decentralized Oracle Service Network to Boost Blockchain Usability with Real World Data and Computation Power. Retrieved from https:\/\/dos.network","journal-title":"https:\/\/dos.network"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2020.3020092"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","unstructured":"Jack Peterson Joseph Krug Micah Zoltu Austin K Williams and Stephanie Alexander. 2015. Augur: A decentralized oracle and prediction market platform. arXiv:1501.01042. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/\/1501.01042"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jii.2021.100261"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","article-title":"Compound Protocol","author":"Protocol Compound","year":"2021","unstructured":"Compound Protocol. 2021. Compound Protocol. Retrieved from https:\/\/compound.inance\/docs","journal-title":"Retrieved from https:\/\/compound.inance\/docs"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5120\/ijca2018917395"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Reimers. 2019. Sentence-BERT: Sentence embeddings using siamese BERT-networks. arXiv:1908.10084. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/\/1908.10084","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D19-1410"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2023.3275220"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2021.103232"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24840\/2183-0606_009.003_0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2020.100275"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","article-title":"Blockchain-empowered H-CPS architecture for smart agriculture","author":"Wang Xiaoding","year":"2025","unstructured":"Xiaoding Wang, Qibin Wu, Haitao Zeng, Xu Yang, Hui Cui, Xun Yi, Md Jalil Piran, Ming Luo, and Youxiong Que. 2025. Blockchain-empowered H-CPS architecture for smart agriculture. Advanced Science 12, 27 (2025), 2503102.","journal-title":"Advanced Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092725"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","unstructured":"Youquan Xian Peng Liu Dongcheng Li and Xueying Zeng. 2024. Safeguarding the truth of high-value price oracle task: A dynamically adjusted truth discovery method. arXiv:2402.02543. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/\/2402.02543"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2025.107846"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23919\/transcom.2023EBP3156"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM53939.2023.10229019"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3654777.3676374"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TrustCom60117.2023.00372"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978326"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3372297.3417239"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SP54263.2024.00053"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_2","article-title":"Towards analyzing and mitigating sycophancy in large vision-language models","author":"Zhao Yunpu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yunpu Zhao, Rui Zhang, Junbin Xiao, Changxin Ke, Ruibo Hou, Yifan Hao, Qi Guo, and Yunji Chen. 2024. Towards analyzing and mitigating sycophancy in large vision-language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.11261 (2024).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.11261"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_2","article-title":"Large language model (llm) for telecommunications: A comprehensive survey on principles, key techniques, and opportunities","author":"Zhou Hao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hao Zhou, Chengming Hu, Ye Yuan, Yufei Cui, Yili Jin, Can Chen, Haolun Wu, Dun Yuan, Li Jiang, Di Wu, et\u00a0al. 2024. Large language model (llm) for telecommunications: A comprehensive survey on principles, key techniques, and opportunities. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 27, 3 (2024), 1955\u20132005.","journal-title":"IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_2","first-page":"50117","article-title":"Toolqa: A dataset for llm question answering with external tools","volume":"36","author":"Zhuang Yuchen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yuchen Zhuang, Yue Yu, Kuan Wang, Haotian Sun, and Chao Zhang. 2023. Toolqa: A dataset for llm question answering with external tools. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 36 (2023), 50117\u201350143.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on the Web"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3767296","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T22:18:28Z","timestamp":1772749108000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3767296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3767296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3767296","relation":{},"ISSN":["1559-1131","1559-114X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1559-1131","type":"print"},{"value":"1559-114X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-04-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-30","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-02-18","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}