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However, freehand pointing outside of HCI shows more variability across hand pose, usage, and coordination with gaze. To understand what variability exists and how it affects pointing performance, we collected data (N\u2009=\u200923) using a hybrid motion capture system. To elicit a wide variety of pointing behaviours, we included different levels of user effort and attention, as well as the widest range of target placements studied. We systematically characterised and described three distinct pointing behaviours, each with three different traits, ranging from accurate stereotypical pointing observed in prior works to more casual hip fire-style pointing. Our analysis demonstrates how different pointing behaviours affect pointing performance and highlights their importance when designing interactive systems for more naturalistic freehand pointing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3770583","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:49:53Z","timestamp":1760104193000},"page":"1-47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Understanding Freehand Cursorless Pointing Variability and Its Impact on Selection Performance"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"33","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-8589-5517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Whiffing","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1275-2026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Langlotz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0634-7569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christof","family":"Lutteroth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5676-3136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adwait","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3916-7708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Clarke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2009.117"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","first-page":"17","volume-title":"MOG 2007 Workshop on Multimodal Output Generation","author":"Bangerter Adrian","year":"2007","unstructured":"Adrian Bangerter and Eric Chevalley. 2007. 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