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Optim."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>After Learning Evolutionary Retrofitting (AfterLearnER) consists in applying evolutionary optimization to refine fully trained machine learning models by optimizing a set of carefully chosen parameters or hyperparameters of the model, with respect to some actual, exact, and hence possibly non-differentiable error signal, performed on a subset of the standard validation set. The efficiency of AfterLearnER is demonstrated by tackling non-differentiable signals such as threshold-based criteria in depth sensing, the word error rate in speech resynthesis, the number of kills per life at Doom, computational accuracy or BLEU in code translation, image quality in 3D generative adversarial networks (GANs), and user feedback in image generation via latent diffusion models (LDM). This retrofitting can be done after training, or dynamically at inference time by taking into account the user feedback. The advantages of AfterLearnER are its versatility, the possibility to use non-differentiable feedback, including human evaluations (i.e., no gradient is needed), the limited overfitting supported by a theoretical study, and its anytime behavior. Last but not least, AfterLearnER requires only a small amount of feedback, i.e., a few dozen to a few hundred scalars, compared to the tens of thousands needed in most related published works.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3771736","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T14:43:53Z","timestamp":1763045033000},"page":"1-45","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evolutionary Retrofitting"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3672-808X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathurin","family":"Videau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Meta AI, Paris, France and TAU, INRIA and LISN, CNRS, University of Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4599-2749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariia","family":"Zameshina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ Gustave Eiffel, CNRS, LIGM, Champs-sur-Marne, France and Meta AI, Paris, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3071-8019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Leite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INSA Rouen Normandy, University of Rouen Normandy, Saint Etienne du Rouvray, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6190-0235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurent","family":"Najman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ Gustave Eiffel, CNRS, LIGM, Champs-sur-Marne, France and Department of Mathematics, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1450-6830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Schoenauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TAU, INRIA and LISN, CNRS, University of Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5570-5209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivier","family":"Teytaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Thales\u2013CortAIx Labs, Palaiseau, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","unstructured":"Josh Abramson Arun Ahuja Federico Carnevale Petko Georgiev Alex Goldin Alden Hung Jessica Landon Jirka Lhotka Timothy Lillicrap Alistair Muldal et al. 2022. 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