{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T19:32:46Z","timestamp":1764703966520,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"November","content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ubiquity"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">The case study of driverless vehicles shows that AI has limitations. Understanding this can lead to successful systems, while not understanding it has led to expensive failures. Despite billions of dollars invested over many decades, no vehicle entirely controlled by AI can operate on public roads. Success comes from an appropriate combination of AI doing what it does best and humans doing what they do best. The examples of a grocery delivery system and driverless taxis show that viable systems can be produced when vehicles drive partly using AI but request remote human assistance when the AI cannot cope. Such successes can give the public the impression that the AI can solve much harder problems than it can---to operate in the highly complex real world AI systems need humans in the loop. There are various aids for drivers such as AI controlling cars on freeways, but these all require the driver to take back control when instructed. Other lessons for engineering AI system include: the level of autonomy for intelligent machines and systems should be well defined; a systems approach that codesigns AI systems with their operating environment can lead to successful systems capable of incremental improvement; new and unanticipated problems can emerge on applying AI; the highest standards of conventional software engineering are required for robust and safe AI applications; driverless vehicles challenge the idea that regulation stifles innovation, and provide examples of companies putting profit before safety---regulation is essential for safe applications of AI<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3777393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T17:08:13Z","timestamp":1764090493000},"page":"1-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Driverless Vehicles: A Case Study in Applied Artificial Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"2025","author":[{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Wolmar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Espen","family":"Andersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Miguel","family":"Valdez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kemal","family":"Delic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Odlyzko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","volume-title":"The Guardian","author":"Abdul G.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Abdul, G. 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Tue"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","volume-title":"The Independent.","author":"Cuthbertso A.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cuthbertso, A. Two driverless cars crash into the same truck, prompting first Waymo recall. The Independent. Feb. 14, 2024."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","volume-title":"Pilot Project for New Energy and Climate Technology on behalf of Ruter As.","author":"Enova","year":"2025","unstructured":"Enova. Adapting autonomous vehicle technology for public transport in Norway: Piloting shared, electric, autonomous vehicles in on-demand service. Enova Final Report, Pilot Project for New Energy and Climate Technology on behalf of Ruter As. Aug. 30, 2025."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Driverless cars were the future but now the truth is out: they're on the road to nowhere. The Guardian","author":"Wolmar C.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wolmar, C. Driverless cars were the future but now the truth is out: they're on the road to nowhere. The Guardian. 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