{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T18:30:49Z","timestamp":1780338649070,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Meas. Anal. Comput. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Evaluating the reliability of noisy quantum circuits is essential for implementing quantum algorithms on noisy quantum devices. However, current quantum hardware exhibits diverse noise mechanisms whose compounded effects make accurate and efficient reliability evaluation challenging. While state fidelity is the most faithful indicator of circuit reliability, it is experimentally and computationally prohibitive to obtain. Alternative metrics, although easier to compute, often fail to accurately reflect circuit reliability, lack universality across circuit types, or offer limited interpretability. To address these challenges, we propose a fine-grained, scalable, and interpretable framework for efficient and accurate reliability evaluation of noisy quantum circuits. Our approach performs a state-independent analysis to model how circuit reliability progressively degrades during execution. We introduce the Noise Proxy Circuit (NPC), which removes all logical operations while preserving the complete sequence of noise channels, thereby providing an abstraction of cumulative noise effects. Based on the NPC, we define Proxy Fidelity, a reliability metric that quantifies both qubit-level and circuit-level reliability. We further develop an analytical algorithm to estimate Proxy Fidelity under depolarizing, thermal relaxation, and readout error channels. The proposed framework achieves fidelity-level reliability estimation while remaining execution-free, scalable, and interpretable. Experimental results show that our method accurately estimates circuit fidelity, with an average absolute difference (AAD) ranging from 0.031 to 0.069 across diverse circuits and devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3788085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T18:49:47Z","timestamp":1774550987000},"page":"1-23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Fine-Grained and Efficient Reliability Analysis Framework for Noisy Quantum Circuits"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0489-0616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jindi","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6195-0050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianjie","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"William &amp;#38; Mary, Williamsburg, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2231-6615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"William &amp;#38; Mary, Williamsburg, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"2021. Device backend noise model simulations. https:\/\/qiskit.org\/documentation\/stable\/0.19\/tutorials\/simulators\/2_device_noise_simulation.html#Simulating-a-quantum-circuit-with-noise"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"Photonic quantum computers. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.08229","author":"AbuGhanem Muhammad","year":"2024","unstructured":"Muhammad AbuGhanem. 2024. Photonic quantum computers. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.08229 (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.94.015004"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900092"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045005","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.95.045005","article-title":"Quantum error mitigation","volume":"95","author":"Cai Zhenyu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhenyu Cai, Ryan Babbush, Simon C Benjamin, Suguru Endo, William J Huggins, Ying Li, Jarrod R McClean, and Thomas E O'Brien. 2023. Quantum error mitigation. Reviews of Modern Physics 95, 4 (2023), 045005.","journal-title":"Reviews of Modern Physics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.82.1155"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Efficient quantum state tomography. Nature communications 1, 1","author":"Cramer Marcus","year":"2010","unstructured":"Marcus Cramer, Martin B Plenio, Steven T Flammia, Rolando Somma, David Gross, Stephen D Bartlett, Olivier Landon-Cardinal, David Poulin, and Yi-Kai Liu. 2010. Efficient quantum state tomography. Nature communications 1, 1 (2010), 149."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.103.042603"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3466752.3480044"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2012.2211477"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/4\/1\/346"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevX.8.031027"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7566\/JPSJ.90.032001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1038\/nphys450","article-title":"Conditional control of the quantum states of remote atomic memories for quantum networking","volume":"2","author":"Felinto Daniel","year":"2006","unstructured":"Daniel Felinto, Chin-Wen Chou, Julien Laurat, EW Schomburg, Hugues De Riedmatten, and H Jeff Kimble. 2006. Conditional control of the quantum states of remote atomic memories for quantum networking. Nature Physics 2, 12 (2006), 844-848.","journal-title":"Nature Physics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","volume-title":"Florian Marquardt, and Li Li.","author":"F\u00f6sel Thomas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thomas F\u00f6sel, Murphy Yuezhen Niu, Florian Marquardt, and Li Li. 2021. Quantum circuit optimization with deep reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.07585 (2021)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","volume-title":"Building logical qubits in a superconducting quantum computing system. npj quantum information 3, 1","author":"Gambetta Jay M","year":"2017","unstructured":"Jay M Gambetta, Jerry M Chow, and Matthias Steffen. 2017. Building logical qubits in a superconducting quantum computing system. npj quantum information 3, 1 (2017), 2."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jay M Gambetta Antonio D C\u00f3rcoles Seth T Merkel Blake R Johnson John A Smolin Jerry M Chow Colm A Ryan Chad Rigetti Stefano Poletto Thomas A Ohki et al. 2012. Characterization of addressability by simultaneous randomized benchmarking. Physical review letters 109 24 (2012) 240504.","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.109.240504"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","volume-title":"Quantum circuit synthesis and compilation optimization: Overview and prospects. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.00736","author":"Ge Yan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yan Ge, Wu Wenjie, Chen Yuheng, Pan Kaisen, Lu Xudong, Zhou Zixiang, Wang Yuhan, Wang Ruocheng, and Yan Junchi. 2024. Quantum circuit synthesis and compilation optimization: Overview and prospects. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.00736 (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TQE.2022.3168784"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","volume-title":"Quantum communication. Nature photonics 1, 3","author":"Gisin Nicolas","year":"2007","unstructured":"Nicolas Gisin and Rob Thew. 2007. Quantum communication. Nature photonics 1, 3 (2007), 165-171."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","volume-title":"Quantum computing with trapped ions. Physics reports 469, 4","author":"H\u00e4ffner Hartmut","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hartmut H\u00e4ffner, Christian F Roos, and Rainer Blatt. 2008. Quantum computing with trapped ions. Physics reports 469, 4 (2008), 155-203."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22331\/q-2020-09-21-327"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"Tetris: A compilation Framework for VQE Applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.01905","author":"Jin Yuwei","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yuwei Jin, Zirui Li, Fei Hua, Yanhao Chen, Henry Chen, Yipeng Huang, and Eddy Z Zhang. 2023. Tetris: A compilation Framework for VQE Applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.01905 (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","volume-title":"Ken Xuan Wei","author":"Kim Youngseok","year":"2023","unstructured":"Youngseok Kim, Andrew Eddins, Sajant Anand, Ken Xuan Wei, Ewout Van Den Berg, Sami Rosenblatt, Hasan Nayfeh, Yantao Wu, Michael Zaletel, Kristan Temme, et al. 2023. Evidence for the utility of quantum computing before fault tolerance. Nature 618, 7965 (2023), 500-505."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3297858.3304023"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","volume-title":"Quantum error correction","author":"Lidar Daniel A","unstructured":"Daniel A Lidar and Todd A Brun. 2013. Quantum error correction. Cambridge university press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"2020 IEEE international symposium on workload characterization (IISWC). IEEE, 94-105","author":"Liu Ji","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ji Liu and Huiyang Zhou. 2020. Reliability modeling of nisq-era quantum computers. In 2020 IEEE international symposium on workload characterization (IISWC). IEEE, 94-105."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.85.042311"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1428442"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3386162"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3565271"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"2021 IEEE European Test Symposium (ETS). IEEE, 1-6.","author":"Saravanan Vedika","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vedika Saravanan and Samah Mohamed Saeed. 2021. Test data-driven machine learning models for reliable quantum circuit output. In 2021 IEEE European Test Symposium (ETS). IEEE, 1-6."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.2.040330"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","volume-title":"Experimental estimation of quantum state properties from classical shadows. PRX quantum 2, 1","author":"Struchalin GI","year":"2021","unstructured":"GI Struchalin, Ya A Zagorovskii, EV Kovlakov, SS Straupe, and SP Kulik. 2021. Experimental estimation of quantum state properties from classical shadows. PRX quantum 2, 1 (2021), 010307."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3352460.3358257"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","volume-title":"Error mitigation for short-depth quantum circuits. Physical review letters 119, 18","author":"Temme Kristan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kristan Temme, Sergey Bravyi, and Jay M Gambetta. 2017. Error mitigation for short-depth quantum circuits. Physical review letters 119, 18 (2017), 180509."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42484-023-00121-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032314","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.65.032314","article-title":"Computable measure of entanglement","volume":"65","author":"Vidal Guifr\u00e9","year":"2002","unstructured":"Guifr\u00e9 Vidal and Reinhard F Werner. 2002. Computable measure of entanglement. Physical Review A 65, 3 (2002), 032314.","journal-title":"Physical Review A"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","volume-title":"Quest: Graph transformer for quantum circuit reliability estimation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.16724","author":"Wang Hanrui","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hanrui Wang, Pengyu Liu, Jinglei Cheng, Zhiding Liang, Jiaqi Gu, Zirui Li, Yongshan Ding, Weiwen Jiang, Yiyu Shi, Xuehai Qian, et al. 2022. Quest: Graph transformer for quantum circuit reliability estimation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.16724 (2022)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 43rd IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design. 1-8.","author":"Wu Jindi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jindi Wu, Tianjie Hu, and Qun Li. 2024. Detecting Fraudulent Services on Quantum Cloud Platforms via Dynamic Fingerprinting. In Proceedings of the 43rd IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design. 1-8."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2024.3400893","article-title":"Q-id: Lightweight quantum network server identification through fingerprinting","volume":"38","author":"Hu Tianjie","year":"2024","unstructured":"JindiWu, Tianjie Hu, and Qun Li. 2024. Q-id: Lightweight quantum network server identification through fingerprinting. IEEE Network 38, 5 (2024), 146-152.","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2025.3645773"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","volume-title":"Frederic T Chong, and Costin Iancu.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xin-ChuanWu, Marc Grau Davis, Frederic T Chong, and Costin Iancu. 2020. QGo: Scalable quantum circuit optimization using automated synthesis. arXiv preprint arXiv:2012.09835 (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"Fashion-mnist: a novel image dataset for benchmarking machine learning algorithms. arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.07747","author":"Xiao Han","year":"2017","unstructured":"Han Xiao, Kashif Rasul, and Roland Vollgraf. 2017. Fashion-mnist: a novel image dataset for benchmarking machine learning algorithms. arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.07747 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","volume-title":"A depth-aware swap insertion scheme for the qubit mapping problem. arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.07289","author":"Zhang Chi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chi Zhang, Yanhao Chen, Yuwei Jin, Wonsun Ahn, Youtao Zhang, and Eddy Z Zhang. 2020. A depth-aware swap insertion scheme for the qubit mapping problem. arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.07289 (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","volume-title":"A deep learning model for noise prediction on near-term quantum devices. arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.10811","author":"Zlokapa Alexander","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alexander Zlokapa and Alexandru Gheorghiu. 2020. A deep learning model for noise prediction on near-term quantum devices. arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.10811 (2020)."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Measurement and Analysis of Computing Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3788085","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T18:51:59Z","timestamp":1774551119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3788085"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3788085"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3788085","relation":{},"ISSN":["2476-1249"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2476-1249","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-03-26","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}