{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T15:49:40Z","timestamp":1775490580323,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation (NSF)-Japan Science and Technology Agency","award":["NSF 2125561\/JST 21453299"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSF 2125561\/JST 21453299"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001700","name":"Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["S004541"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S004541"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001700","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Comput. Healthcare"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Prolonged loneliness in older adults increases the risk of dementia, cardiovascular diseases, and premature death. However, timely detection and behavioral pattern analysis are challenging due to the slow progression of loneliness and diverse individual lifestyles. To address these barriers, we propose SMILE, an end-to-end framework for sensor-driven detection and counterfactual pattern analysis of loneliness. Our approach uses non-intrusive sensors to passively observe behavior and build a personalized profile over time. When SMILE detects meaningful changes in activity patterns, it employs generative models to produce counterfactual sensor profiles\u2014synthetic representations of behavior predicted to result in lower loneliness scores. Suggested pattern changes are identified as the difference between observed and counterfactual profiles, highlighting the behaviors most associated with loneliness. We conducted a 6-month feasibility study with 18 participants from the United States and 15 from Japan to develop and evaluate SMILE. Our framework integrates a Time-series Transformer (TST) model for loneliness detection, which achieved 96.25% accuracy, and a diffusion model for generating behavioral explanations, which outperformed a baseline by up to 76.69%. These findings highlight the potential of SMILE to support sensor-driven, personalized loneliness detection and behavioral explanation in aging populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3788684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T15:14:43Z","timestamp":1771514083000},"page":"1-30","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["SMILE: Sensor Data-driven Detection and Counterfactual Pattern Analysis for Loneliness in Older Adults"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4896-7769","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiayan","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3241-5628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahhyun","family":"Yuh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6880-2902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Viktor","family":"Erd\u00e9lyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0281-1205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teruhiro","family":"Mizumoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chiba Institute of Technology, Narashino, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8818-0784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyonyoung","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7291-9186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sean","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2799-3914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1477-4280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takashi","family":"Suehiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5533-3169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takeshi","family":"Nakagawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0177-7667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yutian","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9805-2807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gondo","family":"Yasuyuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1579-8767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hajime","family":"Nagahara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5685-0424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teruo","family":"Higashino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University, Suita, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6318-5829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Demiris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5282-0658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oleg","family":"Sokolsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2672-1132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Insup","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1038\/s44220-024-00328-9","article-title":"A meta-analysis of loneliness and risk of dementia using longitudinal data from >600,000 individuals","volume":"2","author":"Luchetti Martina","year":"2024","unstructured":"Martina Luchetti, Damaris Aschwanden, Amanda A. Sesker, Xianghe Zhu, P\u00e1raic S. O\u2019S\u00failleabh\u00e1in, Yannick Stephan, Antonio Terracciano, and Angelina R. Sutin. 2024. A meta-analysis of loneliness and risk of dementia using longitudinal data from >600,000 individuals. Nature Mental Health 2, 11 (2024), 1350\u20131361.","journal-title":"Nature Mental Health"},{"issue":"13","key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","first-page":"1009","article-title":"Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies","volume":"102","author":"Valtorta Nicole K.","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nicole K. Valtorta, Mona Kanaan, Simon Gilbody, Sara Ronzi, and Barbara Hanratty. 2016. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart (British Cardiac Society) 102, 13 (2016), 1009\u20131016.","journal-title":"Heart (British Cardiac Society)"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1037\/hea0001401","article-title":"Mortality risk of loneliness: Culture matters","volume":"43","author":"Park Jiyoung","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jiyoung Park and Yiyi Zhu. 2024. Mortality risk of loneliness: Culture matters. Health Psychology 43, 11 (2024), 791\u2013802.","journal-title":"Health Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031108","article-title":"Managing perceived loneliness and social-isolation levels for older adults: A survey with focus on wearables-based solutions","volume":"22","author":"Site Aditi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aditi Site, Elena Simona Lohan, Outi Jolanki, Outi Valkama, Rosana Rubio Hernandez, Rita Latikka, Daria Alekseeva, Saigopal Vasudevan, Samuel Afolaranmi, Aleksandr Ometov, et\u00a0al. 2022. Managing perceived loneliness and social-isolation levels for older adults: A survey with focus on wearables-based solutions. Sensors 22, 3 (2022), 1108.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34638","DOI":"10.2196\/34638","article-title":"Loneliness and social isolation detection using passive sensing techniques: Scoping review","volume":"10","author":"Qirtas Malik Muhammad","year":"2022","unstructured":"Malik Muhammad Qirtas, Evi Zafeiridi, Dirk Pesch, and Eleanor Bantry White. 2022. Loneliness and social isolation detection using passive sensing techniques: Scoping review. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 10, 4 (2022), e34638.","journal-title":"JMIR mHealth and uHealth"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JTEHM.2016.2579638","article-title":"A smart-home system to unobtrusively and continuously assess loneliness in older adults","volume":"4","author":"Austin Johanna","year":"2016","unstructured":"Johanna Austin, Hiroko H. Dodge, Thomas Riley, Peter G. Jacobs, Stephen Thielke, and Jeffrey Kaye. 2016. A smart-home system to unobtrusively and continuously assess loneliness in older adults. IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine 4 (2016), 1\u201311.","journal-title":"IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 19th International Conference on Body Sensor Networks (BSN)","author":"Yang Zhongqi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhongqi Yang, Iman Azimi, Salar Jafarlou, Sina Labbaf, Jessica Borelli, Nikil Dutt, and Amir M. Rahmani. 2023. Loneliness forecasting using multi-modal wearable and mobile sensing in everyday settings. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 19th International Conference on Body Sensor Networks (BSN). IEEE, 1\u20134."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712251","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.712251","article-title":"Automatic assessment of loneliness in older adults using speech analysis on responses to daily life questions","volume":"12","author":"Yamada Yasunori","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yasunori Yamada, Kaoru Shinkawa, Miyuki Nemoto, and Tetsuaki Arai. 2021. Automatic assessment of loneliness in older adults using speech analysis on responses to daily life questions. Frontiers in Psychiatry 12 (2021), 712251.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1080\/08959420.2023.2228161","article-title":"Addressing loneliness in older people through a personalized support and community response program","volume":"36","author":"McDaid David","year":"2023","unstructured":"David McDaid and A-La Park. 2023. Addressing loneliness in older people through a personalized support and community response program. Journal of Aging & Social Policy 36, 5 (2023), 1062\u20131078.","journal-title":"Journal of Aging & Social Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2214","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-17097-2","article-title":"What works in interventions targeting loneliness: A systematic review of intervention characteristics","volume":"23","author":"Morrish N.","year":"2023","unstructured":"N. Morrish, S. Choudhury, and A. Medina-Lara. 2023. What works in interventions targeting loneliness: A systematic review of intervention characteristics. BMC Public Health 23, 1 (2023), 2214.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1177\/13607804211029298","article-title":"When technologies are not enough: The challenges of digital interventions to address loneliness in later life","volume":"28","author":"Barbosa Neves Barbara","year":"2023","unstructured":"Barbara Barbosa Neves, Jenny Waycott, and Alexia Maddox. 2023. When technologies are not enough: The challenges of digital interventions to address loneliness in later life. Sociological Research Online 28, 1 (2023), 150\u2013170.","journal-title":"Sociological Research Online"},{"issue":"10","key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2236676","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.36676","article-title":"Interventions associated with reduced loneliness and social isolation in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Hoang Peter","year":"2022","unstructured":"Peter Hoang, James A. King, Sarah Moore, Kim Moore, Krista Reich, Harman Sidhu, Chin Vern Tan, Colin Whaley, and Jacqueline McMillan. 2022. Interventions associated with reduced loneliness and social isolation in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Network Open 5, 10 (2022), e2236676.","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327752jpa6601_2","article-title":"UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure","volume":"66","author":"Russell Daniel W.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Daniel W. Russell. 1996. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment 66, 1 (1996), 20\u201340.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality Assessment"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","unstructured":"Malik Muhammad Qirtas Evi Zafeiridi Eleanor Bantry White and Dirk Pesch. 2024. Evolving ai for wellness: Dynamic and personalized real-time loneliness detection using passive sensing. arXiv:2402.05698. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2402.05698"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4017\/gt.2023.22.2.ree.08","article-title":"Wearables, sensors and the future of technology to detect and infer loneliness in older adults","volume":"22","author":"Rees Jessica","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jessica Rees, Faith Matcham, Freya Probst, Sebastien Ourselin, Yu Shi, Michela Antonelli, Anthea Tinker, and Wei Liu. 2023. Wearables, sensors and the future of technology to detect and infer loneliness in older adults. Gerontechnology 22, 2 (2023), 1\u20134.","journal-title":"Gerontechnology"},{"issue":"24","key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9944","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249944","article-title":"Sensor-based assessment of social isolation and loneliness in older adults: A survey","volume":"22","author":"Prabhu Deepa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Deepa Prabhu, Mahnoosh Kholghi, Moid Sandhu, Wei Lu, Katie Packer, Liesel Higgins, and David Silvera-Tawil. 2022. Sensor-based assessment of social isolation and loneliness in older adults: A survey. Sensors 22, 24 (2022), 9944.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Digital health tools for the passive monitoring of depression: A systematic review of methods","volume":"4","author":"De Angel Valeria","year":"2021","unstructured":"Valeria De Angel, Serena Y. Lewis, Katie White, Carolin Oetzmann, Daniel Leightley, Emanuela Oprea, Grace Lavelle, Faith Matcham, Alice Pace, David C. Mohr, et\u00a0al. 2021. Digital health tools for the passive monitoring of depression: A systematic review of methods. NPJ Digital Medicine 4, 1 (2021), 1\u201313.","journal-title":"NPJ Digital Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01451-2","article-title":"A systematic review of passive data for remote monitoring in psychosis and schizophrenia","volume":"8","author":"Bladon Si\u00e2n","year":"2025","unstructured":"Si\u00e2n Bladon, Emily Eisner, Sandra Bucci, Anuoluwapo Oluwatayo, Glen P. Martin, Matthew Sperrin, John Ainsworth, and Sophie Faulkner. 2025. A systematic review of passive data for remote monitoring in psychosis and schizophrenia. NPJ Digital Medicine 8, 1 (2025), 62.","journal-title":"NPJ Digital Medicine"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2017.12.008","article-title":"Systematic review of smartphone-based passive sensing for health and wellbeing","volume":"77","author":"Cornet Victor P.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Victor P. Cornet and Richard J. Holden. 2018. Systematic review of smartphone-based passive sensing for health and wellbeing. Journal of Biomedical Informatics 77 (2018), 120\u2013132.","journal-title":"Journal of Biomedical Informatics"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","first-page":"43","article-title":"Tracking depression dynamics in college students using mobile phone and wearable sensing","volume":"2","author":"Wang Rui","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rui Wang, Weichen Wang, Alex daSilva, Jeremy F. Huckins, William M. Kelley, Todd F. Heatherton, and Andrew T. Campbell. 2018. Tracking depression dynamics in college students using mobile phone and wearable sensing. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 2, 1 (2018), 43.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"GLOBEM: Cross-dataset generalization of longitudinal human behavior modeling","volume":"7","author":"Xu Xuhai","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xuhai Xu, Xin Liu, Han Zhang, Weichen Wang, Subigya Nepal, Yasaman Sefidgar, Woosuk Seo, Kevin S. Kuehn, Jeremy F. Huckins, Margaret E. Morris, et\u00a0al. 2023. GLOBEM: Cross-dataset generalization of longitudinal human behavior modeling. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 7, 3 (2023), 1\u201325.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3569483","article-title":"Generalization and personalization of mobile sensing-based mood inference models: An analysis of college students in eight countries","volume":"6","author":"Meegahapola Lakmal","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lakmal Meegahapola, William Droz, Peter Kun, Amalia de G\u00f6tzen, Chaitanya Nutakki, Shyam Diwakar, Salvador Ruiz-Correa, Donglei Song, Hao Xu, Miriam Bidoglia, et\u00a0al. 2022. Generalization and personalization of mobile sensing-based mood inference models: An analysis of college students in eight countries. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 6, 4 (2022), 1\u201332.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.116078","article-title":"Decoding loneliness: Can explainable AI help in understanding language differences in lonely older adults","volume":"339","author":"Wang Ning","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ning Wang, Sanchit Goel, Stephanie Ibrahim, Varsha D. Badal, Colin Depp, Erhan Bilal, Koduvayur Subbalakshmi, and Ellen Lee. 2024. Decoding loneliness: Can explainable AI help in understanding language differences in lonely older adults? Psychiatry Research 339 (2024), 116078.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Research"},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_3_1_25_2","first-page":"571","article-title":"Smile (but only deliberately) though your heart is aching: Loneliness is associated with impaired spontaneous smile mimicry","volume":"15","author":"Arnold Andy J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Andy J. Arnold and Piotr Winkielman. 2020. Smile (but only deliberately) though your heart is aching: Loneliness is associated with impaired spontaneous smile mimicry. Social Neuroscience 15, 5 (2020), 571\u2013582.","journal-title":"Social Neuroscience"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhongqi Yang Iman Azimi Salar Jafarlou Sina Labbaf Brenda Nguyen Hana Qureshi Christopher Marcotullio Jessica L. Borelli Nikil Dutt and Amir M. Rahmani. 2023. Loneliness forecasting using multi-modal wearable and mobile sensing in everyday settings. arXiv:2410.00020. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2410.00020","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.06.08.23291165"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_2","unstructured":"Malik Muhammad Qirtas Evi Zafeirid Dirk Pesch and Eleanor Bantry White. 2024. Unmasking the nuances of loneliness: Using digital biomarkers to understand social and emotional loneliness in college students. arXiv:2404.01845. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2404.01845"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2017.07.035","article-title":"An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness","volume":"152","author":"Leigh-Hunt Nicholas","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nicholas Leigh-Hunt, David Bagguley, Kristin Bash, Victoria Turner, Stephen Turnbull, Nicole Valtorta, and Woody Caan. 2017. An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health 152 (2017), 157\u2013171.","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems","author":"Ji Xiayan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xiayan Ji, Ahhyun Yuh, Viktor Erd\u00e9lyi, Teruhiro Mizumoto, Hyonyoung Choi, Sean Lee Harrison, Emma Cho, James Weimer, Hajime Nagahara, Teruo Higashino, et\u00a0al. 2024. Exploring effective sensing indicators of loneliness for elderly community in US and Japan. In Proceedings of the Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 1\u20139."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1369","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1369","article-title":"Digital interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness in older adults: An evidence and gap map","volume":"19","author":"Welch Vivian","year":"2023","unstructured":"Vivian Welch, Elizabeth T. Ghogomu, Victoria I. Barbeau, Sierra Dowling, Rebecca Doyle, Ella Beveridge, Elisabeth Boulton, Payaam Desai, Jimmy Huang, Nour Elmestekawy, et\u00a0al. 2023. Digital interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness in older adults: An evidence and gap map. Campbell Systematic Reviews 19, 4 (2023), e1369.","journal-title":"Campbell Systematic Reviews"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_1_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1177\/0164027504268574","article-title":"A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies","volume":"26","author":"Hughes Mary Elizabeth","year":"2004","unstructured":"Mary Elizabeth Hughes, Linda J. Waite, Louise C. Hawkley, and John T. Cacioppo. 2004. A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies. Research on Aging 26, 6 (2004), 655\u2013672.","journal-title":"Research on Aging"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_32_2","first-page":"177","article-title":"Validation of the UCLA loneliness scale in an elderly population that live alone","volume":"42","author":"Velarde-Mayol C.","year":"2015","unstructured":"C. Velarde-Mayol, S. Fragua-Gil, and J. M. Garc\u00eda-de Cecilia. 2015. Validation of the UCLA loneliness scale in an elderly population that live alone. Semergen 42, 3 (2015), 177\u2013183.","journal-title":"Semergen"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101462","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1101462","article-title":"A systematic review evaluating loneliness assessment instruments in older adults","volume":"14","author":"Bugallo-Carrera C\u00e9sar","year":"2023","unstructured":"C\u00e9sar Bugallo-Carrera, Carlos Dosil-D\u00edaz, Luis Anido-Rif\u00f3n, Mois\u00e9s Pacheco-Lorenzo, Manuel J. Fern\u00e1ndez-Iglesias, and Manuel Gandoy-Crego. 2023. A systematic review evaluating loneliness assessment instruments in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology 14 (2023), 1101462.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-006-9100-3","article-title":"Youth homelessness and social stigma","volume":"36","author":"Kidd Sean A.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sean A. Kidd. 2007. Youth homelessness and social stigma. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 36, 3 (2007), 291\u2013299.","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_1_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02088665","article-title":"Psychological correlates of teenage motherhood","volume":"12","author":"Barth Richard P.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Richard P. Barth, Steven Paul Schinke, and Josie Solseng Maxwell. 1983. Psychological correlates of teenage motherhood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 12, 6 (1983), 471\u2013487.","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"issue":"7","key":"e_1_3_1_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2012.04025.x","article-title":"Determining prevalence and correlates of elder abuse using promotores: Low-income immigrant Latinos report high rates of abuse and neglect","volume":"60","author":"DeLiema Marguerite","year":"2012","unstructured":"Marguerite DeLiema, Zachary D. Gassoumis, Diana C. Homeier, and Kathleen H. Wilber. 2012. Determining prevalence and correlates of elder abuse using promotores: Low-income immigrant Latinos report high rates of abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 60, 7 (2012), 1333\u20131339.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Geriatrics Society"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_1_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691614568352","article-title":"Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review","volume":"10","author":"Holt-Lunstad Julianne","year":"2015","unstructured":"Julianne Holt-Lunstad, Timothy B. Smith, Mark Baker, Tyler Harris, and David Stephenson. 2015. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science 10, 2 (2015), 227\u2013237.","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2010.00725.x","article-title":"Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development","volume":"72","author":"Conger Rand D.","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rand D. Conger, Katherine J. Conger, and Monica J. Martin. 2010. Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and the Family 72, 3 (2010), 685\u2013704.","journal-title":"Journal of Marriage and the Family"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_2","unstructured":"Xiayan Ji Anton Xue Eric Wong Oleg Sokolsky and Insup Lee. 2024. AR-Pro: Counterfactual explanations for anomaly repair with formal properties. In The Thirty-eighth Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. Retrieved from https:\/\/openreview.net\/forum?id=m0jZUvlKl7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_2","unstructured":"Scott M. Lundberg Gabriel G. Erion and Su-In Lee. 2018. Consistent individualized feature attribution for tree ensembles. arXiv:1802.03888. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1802.03888"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_2","unstructured":"Yujia Zhang Kuangyan Song Yiming Sun Sarah Tan and Madeleine Udell. 2019. \u201cWhy should you trust my explanation?\u201d Understanding uncertainty in lime explanations. arXiv:1904.12991. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1904.12991"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_2","first-page":"6840","article-title":"Denoising diffusion probabilistic models","volume":"33","author":"Ho Jonathan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jonathan Ho, Ajay Jain, and Pieter Abbeel. 2020. Denoising diffusion probabilistic models. In Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Vol. 33, 6840\u20136851.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_2","unstructured":"Yuqi Nie Nam H. Nguyen Phanwadee Sinthong and Jayant Kalagnanam. 2022. A time series is worth 64 words: Long-term forecasting with transformers. arXiv:2211.14730. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2211.14730"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3146","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05377-0","article-title":"Sleep loss causes social withdrawal and loneliness","volume":"9","author":"Ben Simon Eti","year":"2018","unstructured":"Eti Ben Simon and Matthew P. Walker. 2018. Sleep loss causes social withdrawal and loneliness. Nature Communications 9, 1 (2018), 3146.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Associations between social isolation, loneliness, and objective physical activity in older men and women","volume":"19","author":"Schrempft Stephanie","year":"2019","unstructured":"Stephanie Schrempft, Marta Jackowska, Mark Hamer, and Andrew Steptoe. 2019. Associations between social isolation, loneliness, and objective physical activity in older men and women. BMC Public Health 19 (2019), 1\u201310.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_1_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e244855","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.4855","article-title":"Social isolation, brain food cue processing, eating behaviors, and mental health symptoms","volume":"7","author":"Zhang Xiaobei","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xiaobei Zhang, Soumya Ravichandran, Gilbert C. Gee, Tien S. Dong, Hiram Beltr\u00e1n-S\u00e1nchez, May C. Wang, Lisa A. Kilpatrick, Jennifer S. Labus, Allison Vaughan, and Arpana Gupta. 2024. Social isolation, brain food cue processing, eating behaviors, and mental health symptoms. JAMA Network Open 7, 4 (2024), e244855.","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_1_47_2","first-page":"585","article-title":"Utilizing activity sensors to identify the behavioural activity patterns of elderly home care clients","volume":"19","author":"Hyv\u00e4ri Sauli","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sauli Hyv\u00e4ri, Satu Elo, Saara Kukkohovi, and Sinikka Lotvonen. 2024. Utilizing activity sensors to identify the behavioural activity patterns of elderly home care clients. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology 19, 3 (2024), 585\u2013594.","journal-title":"Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13908","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70483-3","article-title":"Social isolation, loneliness and physical performance in older-adults: Fixed effects analyses of a cohort study","volume":"10","author":"Philip Keir E. J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Keir E. J. Philip, Michael I. Polkey, Nicholas S. Hopkinson, Andrew Steptoe, and Daisy Fancourt. 2020. Social isolation, loneliness and physical performance in older-adults: Fixed effects analyses of a cohort study. Scientific Reports 10 (2020), 13908.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_2","first-page":"8857","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learning","author":"Rasul Kashif","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kashif Rasul, Jens Lagergren, and Borja Balle. 2021. Autoregressive denoising diffusion models for multivariate probabilistic time series forecasting. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learnings. PMLR, 8857\u20138867."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_2","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Representations","author":"Yuan Zixuan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zixuan Yuan, Bohan Wang, Peng Li, and Ziwei Lin. 2023. TimeDiff: A diffusion model for time-series forecasting. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Representations."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_2","first-page":"8780","article-title":"Diffusion models beat GANs on image synthesis","volume":"34","author":"Dhariwal Prafulla","year":"2021","unstructured":"Prafulla Dhariwal and Alexander Nichol. 2021. Diffusion models beat GANs on image synthesis. In Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Vol. 34, 8780\u20138794.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_52_2","first-page":"3402","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining","author":"Wu Shenghao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shenghao Wu, Wenbin Zhou, Minshuo Chen, and Shixiang Zhu. 2024. Counterfactual generative models for time-varying treatments. In Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 3402\u20133413."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_53_2","volume-title":"Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction","author":"Sutton Richard S.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Richard S. Sutton and Andrew G. Barto. 2018. Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803161","volume-title":"Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference","author":"Pearl Judea","year":"2009","unstructured":"Judea Pearl. 2009. Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_55_2","volume-title":"Elements of Causal Inference: Foundations and Learning Algorithms","author":"Peters Jonas","year":"2017","unstructured":"Jonas Peters, Dominik Janzing, and Bernhard Sch\u00f6lkopf. 2017. Elements of Causal Inference: Foundations and Learning Algorithms. MIT Press."},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_3_1_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejon.2014.05.002","article-title":"Risk factors for loneliness in patients with cancer: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Deckx Laura","year":"2014","unstructured":"Laura Deckx, Marjan van den Akker, and Frank Buntinx. 2014. Risk factors for loneliness in patients with cancer: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Oncology Nursing 18, 5 (2014), 466\u2013477.","journal-title":"European Journal of Oncology Nursing"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_57_2","unstructured":"Xinyu Yuan and Yan Qiao. 2024. Diffusion-TS: Interpretable diffusion for general time series generation. arXiv:2403.01742. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2403.01742"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_1_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1080\/24745332.2023.2176798","article-title":"Validity and reliability of the University of California and Los Angeles loneliness scale in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"7","author":"Alsubheen Sanaa A.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sanaa A. Alsubheen, Cindy Ellerton, Roger Goldstein, and Dina Brooks. 2023. Validity and reliability of the University of California and Los Angeles loneliness scale in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Canadian Journal of Respiratory, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine 7, 2 (2023), 70\u201378.","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Respiratory, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_1_59_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"The behaviour change wheel: A new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions","volume":"6","author":"Michie Susan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Susan Michie, Maartje M. van Stralen, and Robert West. 2011. The behaviour change wheel: A new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implementation Science 6, 1 (2011), 1\u201312.","journal-title":"Implementation Science"},{"issue":"12","key":"e_1_3_1_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2019.1673311","article-title":"A systematic review of interventions for loneliness among older adults living in long-term care facilities","volume":"24","author":"Quan Nicolas G.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nicolas G. Quan, Matthew C. Lohman, Nicholas V. Resciniti, and Daniela B. Friedman. 2020. A systematic review of interventions for loneliness among older adults living in long-term care facilities. Aging & Mental Health 24, 12 (2020), 1945\u20131955.","journal-title":"Aging & Mental Health"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Computing for Healthcare"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3788684","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T14:26:36Z","timestamp":1775485596000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3788684"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3788684"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3788684","relation":{},"ISSN":["2691-1957","2637-8051"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2691-1957","type":"print"},{"value":"2637-8051","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-05-20","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-10-31","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-04-06","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}