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ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Honey bees play a vital role in global agriculture. Understanding the movement of a queen bee within a hive box is essential for advancing both biological research and practical apiculture. In this paper, we present SOPAR, a novel Radio Frequency (RF) Sub-harmonic Oscillating Parametric Resonator designed for non-invasive localization and tracking of a queen bee inside a full-size hive box. The core component of SOPAR is a lightweight RF backscatter tag that can be attached to a bee's thorax without affecting its normal behavior. The tag comprises two passive resonators: (i) an inner spiral inductor bridged by a varactor diode and (ii) an outer circular inductor with a gap bridged by a chip capacitor. The outer inductor harvests energy from the external excitation signal, driving the oscillation of the inner spiral resonator to produce sub-harmonic backscattered signals at half the excitation frequency. The frequency separation between excitation and backscatter signals eliminates self-interference at the RF reader, significantly improving signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and detection range. The layout of the two resonators is meticulously optimized to maximize magnetic coupling, thereby minimizing the overall tag size. Building on this dual-resonator tag, we design an RF reader with a Bayesian estimation algorithm that localizes the tagged bee by exploiting the spatio-temporal characteristics of the sub-harmonic backscattered signals. We have built a prototype of SOPAR, featuring a tag with a diameter of only 3.7 mm and a weight of less than 10 mg. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SOPAR achieves a median localization error of 3.7 cm when tracking a queen bee in a full-size hive box. Moreover, the results confirm that SOPAR remains robust under diverse environmental conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3810192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T17:06:41Z","timestamp":1781543201000},"page":"1-20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["SOPAR: Bee Localization and Tracking Using RF Sub-harmonic Oscillating Parametric Resonator in Hive Environments"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8169-320X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qijun","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8966-1019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peihao","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0420-9022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geo Jie","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1591-466X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2983-2799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan","family":"Stanley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5354-5547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zach","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4528-4572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunqi","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3272-5239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huacheng","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.20965\/jrm.2021.p0457","article-title":"The lifelog monitoring system for honeybees: RFID and camera recordings in an observation hive","volume":"33","author":"Ai Hiroyuki","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hiroyuki Ai and Shinya Takahashi. 2021. 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