{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T18:30:38Z","timestamp":1776364238988,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Comput. Educ."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Self-regulation of learning (SRL) is an essential ability for academic success in multiple educational contexts, including programming education. However, understanding how students regulate themselves during programming learning is still limited. This exploratory research aimed to investigate the regulatory strategies externalized by 51 students enrolled in an introductory programming course. The objective was to identify the SRL strategies used by these students during multiple phases of the learning process and compare the SRL behavior of high and low-performers. The following research questions guided this investigation: (RQ1) What regulation of learning strategies are used by programming students?; and (RQ2) How do the SRL strategies used by high and low-performing students differ?. The findings demonstrate that learning to program involves complex psychological resources (e.g., cognition, metacognition, behavior, motivation, and emotion) and that students present heterogeneity in their SRL repertoire. In addition, high and low-performing students showed significant differences in how they regulate, which can contribute to understanding the factors that may contribute to learning programming. Lastly, we argue that for analyzing SRL strategies, it is necessary to consider the specificities of programming education, which motivated the development of a conceptual framework to describe the identified strategies and regulatory phases in this learning domain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3635720","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]],"date-time":"2023-12-06T12:22:48Z","timestamp":1701865368000},"page":"1-26","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["What Learning Strategies are Used by Programming Students? A Qualitative Study Grounded on the Self-regulation of Learning Theory"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0947-1530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6659-660X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Mendes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8418-8095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anabela","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coimbra Polytechnic - ISEC, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4997-0019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel","family":"Fortes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","volume-title":"Psychology of Programming Interest Group (PPIG)","author":"Ambrosio Ana Paula","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ana Paula Ambrosio and Scheila W. Martins. 2011. Study attitudes and behaviour of CS1 students-two realities. In Psychology of Programming Interest Group (PPIG). Citeseer, 18."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3408877.3432357"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3344429.3372508"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1089786.1089794"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","volume-title":"Frontiers in Education","author":"Bonilla Pedro R.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pedro R. Bonilla, Immaculada Armadans, and M. Teresa Anguera. 2020. Conflict mediation, emotional regulation and coping strategies in the educational field. In Frontiers in Education, Vol. 5. Frontiers, s50."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39112-5_2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543065003245"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","first-page":"19","article-title":"How does self-regulation affect computer-programming achievement in a blended context?","volume":"6","author":"Cigdem Harun","year":"2015","unstructured":"Harun Cigdem. 2015. How does self-regulation affect computer-programming achievement in a blended context? Contemporary Educational Technology 6, 1 (2015), 19\u201337.","journal-title":"Contemporary Educational Technology"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Emotions and programming learning: Systematic mapping","author":"Coto Mayela","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mayela Coto, Sonia Mora, Beatriz Grass, and Juan Murillo-Morera. 2021. Emotions and programming learning: Systematic mapping. Computer Science Education (2021), 1\u201336.","journal-title":"Computer Science Education"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","volume-title":"Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches","author":"Creswell John W.","year":"2016","unstructured":"John W. Creswell and Cheryl N. Poth. 2016. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE publications."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2015.07.004"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","first-page":"37","article-title":"Self-regulated learning strategies and school performance in higher and lower students in secondary and preparatory school.","volume":"14","author":"Emagnaw Alemayehu Belay","year":"2019","unstructured":"Alemayehu Belay Emagnaw. 2019. Self-regulated learning strategies and school performance in higher and lower students in secondary and preparatory school. Journal on School Educational Technology 14, 4 (2019), 37\u201348.","journal-title":"Journal on School Educational Technology"},{"issue":"69","key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.14689\/ejer.2017.69.4","article-title":"The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study","volume":"17","author":"Ergen Binnur","year":"2017","unstructured":"Binnur Ergen and Sedat Kanadli. 2017. The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 17, 69 (2017), 55\u201374.","journal-title":"Eurasian Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSE.2015.153"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2591708.2591715"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3595187","article-title":"Relationship between implicit intelligence beliefs and maladaptive self-regulation of learning","author":"Flanigan Abraham E.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Abraham E. Flanigan, Markeya S. Peteranetz, Duane F. Shell, and Leen-Kiat Soh. 2023. Relationship between implicit intelligence beliefs and maladaptive self-regulation of learning. ACM Transactions on Computing Education (2023).","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computing Education"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","first-page":"433","article-title":"Regulating motivation and cognition in the classroom: The role of self-schemas and self-regulatory strategies","volume":"127153","author":"Garcia Teresa","year":"1994","unstructured":"Teresa Garcia and Paul R. Pintrich. 1994. Regulating motivation and cognition in the classroom: The role of self-schemas and self-regulatory strategies. Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications 127153 (1994), 433\u2013452.","journal-title":"Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/FIE.2018.8659134"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","first-page":"789","volume-title":"EdMedia+ Innovate Learning","author":"Gomes Anabela","year":"2018","unstructured":"Anabela Gomes, Maria Jos\u00e9 Marcelino, and Ant\u00f3nio Jos\u00e9 Mendes. 2018. Using students\u2019 reflections to understand their perceptions in introductory programming learning. In EdMedia+ Innovate Learning. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 789\u2013797."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","volume-title":"PPIG","author":"Gomes Anabela","year":"2007","unstructured":"Anabela Gomes and Ant\u00f3nio Jos\u00e9 Mendes. 2007. Problem solving in programming. In PPIG. Citeseer, 18."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/003465430303953"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3027385.3027415"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","first-page":"51","article-title":"Learning from productive failure","volume":"1","author":"Kapur Manu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Manu Kapur. 2015. Learning from productive failure. Learning: Research and Practice 1, 1 (2015), 51\u201365.","journal-title":"Learning: Research and Practice"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","volume-title":"Automated Feedback for Learning Code Refactoring","author":"Keuning Hieke","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hieke Keuning. 2020. Automated Feedback for Learning Code Refactoring. Ph.D. Dissertation. Open Universiteit."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1839594.1839609"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","first-page":"74","volume-title":"2016 IEEE 30th International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA)","author":"Ko Chia-Yin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chia-Yin Ko and Fang-Yie Leu. 2016. Applying data mining to explore students\u2019 self-regulation in learning contexts. In 2016 IEEE 30th International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA). IEEE, 74\u201378."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3013499.3013502"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2960310.2960334"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858252","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems","author":"Loksa Dastyni","year":"2016","unstructured":"Dastyni Loksa, Andrew J. Ko, Will Jernigan, Alannah Oleson, Christopher J. Mendez, and Margaret M. Burnett. 2016. Programming, problem solving, and self-awareness: Effects of explicit guidance. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1449\u20131461."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","article-title":"Metacognition and self-regulation in programming education: Theories and exemplars of use","author":"Loksa Dastyni","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dastyni Loksa, Lauren Margulieux, Brett A. Becker, Michelle Craig, Paul Denny, Raymond Pettit, and James Prather. 2022. Metacognition and self-regulation in programming education: Theories and exemplars of use. ACM Transactions on Computing Education (TOCE) (2022).","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computing Education (TOCE)"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3328778.3366846"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08886504.1997.10782199"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11613\/BM.2012.031"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","volume-title":"Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis","author":"Merriam Sharan B.","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sharan B. Merriam and Robin S. Grenier. 2019. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis. John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","article-title":"A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research","volume":"8","author":"Panadero Ernesto","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ernesto Panadero. 2017. A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2017), 422.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","article-title":"How do students self-regulate?: Review of Zimmerman\u2019s cyclical model of self-regulated learning","author":"Panadero Ernesto","year":"2014","unstructured":"Ernesto Panadero and Jes\u00fas Alonso Tapia. 2014. How do students self-regulate?: Review of Zimmerman\u2019s cyclical model of self-regulated learning. Anales de Psicologia (2014).","journal-title":"Anales de Psicologia"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1080\/00313831.2015.1066436","article-title":"Third wave of measurement in the self-regulated learning field: When measurement and intervention come hand in hand","volume":"60","author":"Panadero Ernesto","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ernesto Panadero, Julia Klug, and Sanna J\u00e4rvel\u00e4. 2016. Third wave of measurement in the self-regulated learning field: When measurement and intervention come hand in hand. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 60, 6 (2016), 723\u2013735.","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","first-page":"87","volume-title":"International Conference on Immersive Learning","author":"Pedrosa Daniela","year":"2016","unstructured":"Daniela Pedrosa, Jos\u00e9 Cravino, Leonel Morgado, and Carlos Barreira. 2016. Self-regulated learning in computer programming: Strategies students adopted during an assignment. In International Conference on Immersive Learning. Springer, 87\u2013101."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2021.1991356","article-title":"Teachers need more than knowledge: Why motivation, emotion, and self-regulation are indispensable","volume":"56","author":"Pekrun Reinhard","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reinhard Pekrun. 2021. Teachers need more than knowledge: Why motivation, emotion, and self-regulation are indispensable. Educational Psychologist 56, 4 (2021), 312\u2013322.","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3372782.3406263"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3501385.3543970"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3230977.3230981"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3077618"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2008.288"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2011.03.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108654555.013","article-title":"Novice programmers and introductory programming","author":"Robins Anthony V.","year":"2019","unstructured":"Anthony V. Robins. 2019. Novice programmers and introductory programming. The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research, Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology (2019), 327\u2013376.","journal-title":"The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research, Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s11092-015-9229-2","article-title":"Assessing self-regulated learning in higher education: A systematic literature review of self-report instruments","volume":"28","author":"Roth Anne","year":"2016","unstructured":"Anne Roth, Sabine Ogrin, and Bernhard Schmitz. 2016. Assessing self-regulated learning in higher education: A systematic literature review of self-report instruments. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability 28, 3 (2016), 225\u2013250.","journal-title":"Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dale H. Schunk and Barry J. Zimmerman. 2013. Self-regulation and learning. (2013).","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780195398786.013.026"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","volume-title":"2023 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings","author":"Silva Leonardo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Leonardo Silva, Anabela Gomes, and Ant\u00f3nio Jos\u00e9 Mendes. 2023. Exploring the impact of self-regulation of learning support on programming performance and code development. In 2023 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings. IEEE."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-023-09388-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1145\/3408877.3432363","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education","author":"Silva Leonardo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Leonardo Silva, Ant\u00f3nio Jos\u00e9 Mendes, Anabela Gomes, and Gabriel Fortes Cavalcanti de Mac\u00eado. 2021. Regulation of learning interventions in programming education: A systematic literature review and guideline proposition. In Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. 647\u2013653."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/FIE49875.2021.9637438"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1145\/3287324.3287394","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education","author":"Smith Rebecca","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rebecca Smith and Scott Rixner. 2019. The error landscape: Characterizing the mistakes of novice programmers. In Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. 538\u2013544."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4300\/JGME-D-12-00156.1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1379249.1379265"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01319934","article-title":"Emotional regulation and emotional development","volume":"3","author":"Thompson Ross A.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Ross A. Thompson. 1991. Emotional regulation and emotional development. Educational Psychology Review 3, 4 (1991), 269\u2013307.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2015.08.027"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50051-2","volume-title":"Handbook of Self-Regulation","author":"Weinstein Claire Ellen","year":"2000","unstructured":"Claire Ellen Weinstein, Jenefer Husman, and Douglas R. Dierking. 2000. Self-regulation interventions with a focus on learning strategies. In Handbook of Self-Regulation. Elsevier, 727\u2013747."},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01322178","article-title":"Self-regulating academic learning and achievement: The emergence of a social cognitive perspective","volume":"2","author":"Zimmerman Barry J.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Barry J. Zimmerman. 1990. Self-regulating academic learning and achievement: The emergence of a social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychology Review 2, 2 (1990), 173\u2013201.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","article-title":"Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning.","volume":"80","author":"Zimmerman Barry J.","year":"1988","unstructured":"Barry J. Zimmerman and Manuel Martinez-Pons. 1988. Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 80, 3 (1988), 284.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","first-page":"15","article-title":"Self-regulated learning and performance: An introduction and an overview","author":"Zimmerman Barry J.","year":"2011","unstructured":"Barry J. Zimmerman and Dale H. Schunk. 2011. Self-regulated learning and performance: An introduction and an overview. Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance (2011), 15\u201326.","journal-title":"Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Computing Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3635720","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3635720","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T23:57:00Z","timestamp":1750291020000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3635720"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3635720"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3635720","relation":{},"ISSN":["1946-6226"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1946-6226","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-08-02","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-10-12","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-02-19","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}