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Widespread gigantism in late Paleozoic insects and other arthropods is also consistent with enhanced oxygen flux within diffusion-limited tracheal systems. Because total atmospheric pressure increases with increased oxygen partial pressure, concurrently hyperdense conditions would have augmented aerodynamic force production in early forms of flying insects. By the late Permian, evolution of decompositional microbial and fungal communities, together with disequilibrium in rates of carbon deposition, gradually reduced oxygen concentrations to values possibly as low as 15%. The disappearance of giant insects by the end of the Permian is consistent with extinction of these taxa for reasons of asphyxiation on a geological time scale. As with winged insects, the multiple historical origins of vertebrate flight in the late Jurassic and Cretaceous correlate temporally with periods of elevated atmospheric oxygen. Much discussion of flight performance in Archaeopteryx assumes a contemporary atmospheric composition. Elevated oxygen levels in the mid- to late Mesozoic would, however, have facilitated aerodynamic force production and enhanced muscle power output for ancestral birds, as well as for precursors to bats and pterosaurs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.62.1.135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,27]],"date-time":"2002-07-27T11:46:15Z","timestamp":1027770375000},"page":"135-155","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":73,"title":["The Evolutionary Physiology of Animal Flight: Paleobiological and Present Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.1146","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Dudley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, 78712 and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, P.O. 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