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Although some of these effects have been explored for therapeutic applications, anticipated stronger psychoactive effects than cannabis and reduced risk perception have increased the recreational use of SCs, which have dominated the NPS market in the United States and Europe over the past decade. However, rising SC-related intoxications and deaths represent a major public health concern and embody a major challenge for policy makers.<\/jats:p><jats:p>Here, we review the pharmacology and toxicology of SCs. A thorough characterization of SCs\u2019 pharmacodynamics and toxicodynamics is important to better understand the main mechanisms underlying acute and chronic effects of SCs, interpret the clinical\/pathological findings related to SC use, and improve SC risk awareness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-031122-113758","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T23:47:40Z","timestamp":1659397660000},"page":"187-209","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":85,"title":["Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Pharmacological and Toxicological Overview"],"prefix":"10.1146","volume":"63","author":[{"given":"Rita","family":"Roque-Bravo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafaela Sofia","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rui F.","family":"Malheiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Helena","family":"Carmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"F\u00e9lix","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diana Dias","family":"da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"},{"name":"Toxicology Research Unit (TOXRUN), University Institute of Health Sciences, IUCS-CESPU, Gandra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o Pedro","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, and UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"22","reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2015.10.008"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/aqx138"},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"Perspectives on drugs: synthetic cannabinoids in Europe","author":"Eur. 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