{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T01:47:39Z","timestamp":1787017659324,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,1]],"date-time":"2011-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1293840000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AIDS Research and Treatment"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and other medical therapies for HIV-related infections have been associated with toxicities. Antiretroviral therapy can contribute to renal dysfunction directly by inducing acute tubular necrosis, acute interstitial nephritis, crystal nephropathy, and renal tubular disorders or indirectly via drug interactions. With the increase in HAART use, clinicians must screen patients for the development of kidney disease especially if the regimen employed increases risk of kidney injury. It is also important that patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are not denied the best combinations, especially since most drugs can be adjusted based on the estimated GFR. Early detection of risk factors, systematic screening for chronic causes of CKD, and appropriate referrals for kidney disease management should be advocated for improved patient care. The interaction between immunosuppressive therapy and HAART in patients with kidney transplants and the recent endorsement of tenofovir\/emtricitabine by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) for preexposure prophylaxis bring a new dimension for nephrotoxicity vigilance. This paper summarizes the common antiretroviral drugs associated with nephrotoxicity with particular emphasis on tenofovir and protease inhibitors, their risk factors, and management as well as prevention strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/562790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,15]],"date-time":"2011-08-15T15:00:23Z","timestamp":1313420423000},"page":"1-11","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Nephrotoxicity of HAART"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2011","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Kalyesubula","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O. Box 7072, Kampal, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark A.","family":"Perazella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Nephrology, Yale School of Medicine, BB 114, 330 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8029, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010452"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181f9c1f0"},{"issue":"13","key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199803263381301","volume":"338","year":"1998","journal-title":"The New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1157\/13088948"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1293.2008.00691.x"},{"issue":"6","key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-011-1783-3","volume":"26","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatric Nephrology"},{"issue":"16","key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283313c91","volume":"23","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/587994"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.226"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-010-0861-0"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5000351"},{"issue":"2","key":"12","first-page":"145","volume":"4","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clinical Advances in Hematology and Oncology"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181b9869f"},{"issue":"4","key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1177\/095646249500600414","volume":"6","year":"1995","journal-title":"International Journal of STD and AIDS"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32830e0152"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181b980d4"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2004.00865.x"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/589296"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.aids.0000210610.52836.07"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.04.003"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.08.009"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/533468"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000138983.45235.02"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200404300-00019"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2004.19.5.714"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200403010-00007"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/655681"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1293.2009.00693.x"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/apc.2009.0326"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328303be50"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/499048"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/521930"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/368313"},{"issue":"1","key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020501600106","volume":"16","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antiviral Chemistry and Chemotherapy"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.344"},{"key":"36","series-title":"Recommendations for a Public Health Approach","year":"2010"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0906768"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1517"},{"issue":"9","key":"39","first-page":"1061","volume":"1","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of the American Society of Nephrology"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/108729100750018308"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328334cc4a"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328303be40"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/14.6.1578"},{"key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.clpt.6100269"},{"key":"51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00251-06"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/11203800-000000000-00000"},{"issue":"2","key":"45","first-page":"61","volume":"20","year":"2009","journal-title":"Positively Aware"},{"key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkn252"},{"key":"47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2010.08.045"},{"key":"48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1011205"},{"issue":"3","key":"49","first-page":"65","volume":"60","year":"2011","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.clpt.6100269"},{"key":"52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.106.028233"},{"key":"54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/apc.2007.0052"},{"key":"55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-200212000-00011"},{"key":"56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283262a64"},{"issue":"4","key":"57","first-page":"296","volume":"52","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Postgraduate Medicine"},{"key":"58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfm467"},{"key":"59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/378068"},{"key":"60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1081\/NCN-100002341"},{"key":"61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/hupa.2001.25586"},{"issue":"1","key":"62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181d05579","volume":"55","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes"},{"key":"63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.318"},{"key":"64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181dd911e"},{"key":"65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00041552-200009000-00003"},{"key":"66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199701093360214"},{"issue":"5","key":"67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2000.19114","volume":"36","year":"2000","journal-title":"American Journal of Kidney Diseases"},{"key":"68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2008.604"},{"key":"69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0706135"},{"key":"70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61047-2"},{"key":"71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1662"},{"key":"72a","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1517\/14656561003724754"},{"key":"72b","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283316a5e"},{"issue":"1","key":"73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-6386(88)80076-3","volume":"12","year":"1988","journal-title":"American Journal of Kidney Diseases"},{"issue":"1","key":"74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-199301000-00007","volume":"305","year":"1993","journal-title":"American Journal of the Medical Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-127-2-199707150-00004","volume":"127","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annals of Internal Medicine"},{"key":"76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3282ef792f"},{"key":"77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/430257"},{"key":"78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpneph0282"},{"issue":"4","key":"79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32","DOI":"10.1086\/381441","volume":"38","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clinical Infectious Diseases"},{"issue":"2","key":"80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-6386(02)70081-4","volume":"39","year":"2002","journal-title":"American Journal of Kidney Diseases"},{"key":"81","year":"1951"},{"key":"82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000178978"},{"key":"83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2010.03.026"},{"key":"84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2010.09.015"},{"issue":"9","key":"85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00006","volume":"150","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annals of Internal Medicine"},{"key":"86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ASN.0000022011.35035.F3"},{"issue":"2 i","key":"87","first-page":"222","volume":"16","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"issue":"10","key":"88","first-page":"394","volume":"30","year":"1992","journal-title":"International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology Therapy and Toxicology"},{"key":"89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp765"},{"key":"90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2007.099085"},{"key":"91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2008.499"},{"key":"92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-8981(82)90356-4"},{"key":"93","first-page":"S14","volume":"38","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clinical Nephrology"},{"key":"94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2009.07.012"},{"key":"95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.5.1047"},{"issue":"6","key":"96","first-page":"1001","volume":"27","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology"},{"key":"97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3747\/pdi.2008.00226"},{"key":"98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2009.0261"},{"issue":"6","key":"99","first-page":"326","volume":"17","year":"2007","journal-title":"AIDS Reader"},{"key":"100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03880609"},{"issue":"2","key":"101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1177\/089686089201200219","volume":"12","year":"1992","journal-title":"Peritoneal Dialysis International"},{"issue":"2","key":"102","first-page":"51","volume":"49","year":"2007","journal-title":"Panminerva Medica"},{"key":"103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2009.140"},{"key":"104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1001197"},{"issue":"9","key":"105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1053\/jlts.2002.34880","volume":"8","year":"2002","journal-title":"Liver Transplantation"},{"key":"106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transproceed.2009.06.186"},{"key":"107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60338-X"},{"key":"108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc0900837"}],"container-title":["AIDS Research and Treatment"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/art\/2011\/562790.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/art\/2011\/562790.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/art\/2011\/562790.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,22]],"date-time":"2020-06-22T04:41:36Z","timestamp":1592800896000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/art\/2011\/562790\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011]]},"references-count":109,"alternative-id":["562790","562790"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2011\/562790","relation":{},"ISSN":["2090-1240","2090-1259"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2090-1240","type":"print"},{"value":"2090-1259","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011]]}}}