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We examined the relationship between childhood measures of PAH exposure and prevalence of attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability (LD), and special education (SE) in a nationally representative sample of 1,257 U.S. children 6\u201315 years of age. Data were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001\u20132004. PAH exposure was measured by urinary metabolite concentrations. Outcomes were defined by parental report of (1) ever doctor-diagnosed ADHD, (2) ever doctor- or school representative-identified LD, and (3) receipt of SE or early intervention services. Multivariate logistic regression accounting for survey sampling was used to determine the associations between PAH metabolites and ADHD, LD, and SE. Children exposed to higher levels of fluorine metabolites had a 2-fold increased odds (95% C.I. 1.1, 3.8) of SE, and this association was more apparent in males (OR 2.3; 95% C.I. 1.2, 4.1) than in females (OR 1.8; 95% C.I. 0.6, 5.4). No other consistent pattern of developmental disorders was associated with urinary PAH metabolites. However, concurrent exposure to PAH fluorine metabolites may increase use of special education services among U.S. children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/628508","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,30]],"date-time":"2014-01-30T16:16:56Z","timestamp":1391098616000},"page":"1-10","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Urinary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Metabolites and Attention\/Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Learning Disability, and Special Education in U.S. Children Aged 6 to 15"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2014","author":[{"given":"Zaynah","family":"Abid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ananya","family":"Roy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, 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