{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T22:26:38Z","timestamp":1790202398129,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]],"date-time":"2020-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":219,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Inflammation and pain are devastating conditions characterizing many diseases. Their manifestation ranges from mild body discomfort, to a debilitating experience, which may culminate in organ failure or death. In conventional medicine, corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti\u2010inflammatory drugs, opioids, and adjuvants are utilized to manage symptoms related to pain and inflammation. Despite their reported successes, these agents are only palliative, debatably inaccessible, unaffordable, and cause many undesirable side effects. As a result, the search for alternative and complementary therapies is warranted. Medicinal plants have been intensively utilized by humans for a long time to treat various ailments. In spite of their reported efficacies, empirical scientific data supporting their healing claims is scanty.\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    (Schumach.) has been used in African traditional medicine, especially by traditional herbalists in Nigeria and Kenya, to treat conditions associated with inflammation. Even though analgesic, anti\u2010inflammatory, and toxicity studies have been performed on leaf extracts, and some of their isolated compounds in Nigeria, there is scanty data supporting the use of stem bark extracts, which are commonly utilized in Kenya for pain, and inflammation management. Moreover, scientific data regarding safety and toxicity of the stem bark extracts of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    utilized in Kenya by traditional herbalists are inadequate. Based on this background, acute oral toxicity evaluation of the aqueous and methanolic stem bark extracts of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , in Swiss albino mice, was performed according to the OECD\/OCDE (2008) guidelines. Anti\u2010inflammatory activities were investigated using the xylene\u2010induced ear oedema in mice, whereas analgesic activities were examined following the acetic acid\u2010induced writhing technique. The acute oral toxicity data was analyzed, and interpreted according to the OECDE (2008) guidelines. Anti\u2010inflammatory and analgesic activities data were tabulated on MS Excel, and exported to GraphPad Prism (v8.3). Descriptive statistics were computed, and expressed as mean\u2009\u00b1\u2009SEM. Thereafter, One\u2010Way ANOVA followed by Tukey\u2019s test was performed.\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All the studied plant extracts had LD\n                    <jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>\n                    values\u2009&gt;\u20092000\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw, and were hence deemed to be nontoxic according to OECD\/OCDE document no. 425. The results showed that the acetic acid\u2010induced writhing frequency in mice administered the aqueous stem bark extract of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , at a dose of 500\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw, was not significantly different from that recorded for mice which received the reference drug (acetylsalicylic acid 75\u2009mg) (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &gt; 0.05). Additionally, at all the studied extract doses, significantly lower acetic acid\u2010induced writhing frequencies were recorded in mice that received the aqueous stem bark extract of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , compared with the writhing frequencies in mice that received the methanolic extract of the same plant (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05). On the other hand, the aqueous stem bark extract of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii,<\/jats:italic>\n                    at doses of 100\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw and 500\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw, and the methanolic stem bark extract of the same plant, at a dose level of 500\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw, exhibited significantly higher percentage inhibitions of xylene\u2010induced oedema than the percentage inhibitions shown by the reference drug (dexamethasone 1\u2009mg\/kg\u2009bw) (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05). Generally, the aqueous stem bark extract of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , at all the studied dose levels, caused significantly higher inhibitions of xylene\u2010induced ear oedema in mice, compared with the percentage inhibitions shown by methanolic stem bark (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05). Therefore, the aqueous, and methanolic stem bark extracts of\n                    <jats:italic>P. thonningii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , grown in Kenya, possess peripheral analgesic and anti\u2010inflammatory activities in Swiss albino mice. Hence, they have a potential of offering safe analgesic, and anti\u2010inflammatory compounds. Further studies aimed at isolating, elucidating, and characterizing bioactive components from the studied extracts are recommended. Moreover, specific mode(s) through which these extracts exert the reported bioactivities should be established. Further toxicological investigations involving the studied plant extracts are encouraged to fully establish their safety.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5651390","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]],"date-time":"2020-08-07T19:55:22Z","timestamp":1596830122000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Acute Oral Toxicity and Anti\u2010inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of\n                    <i>Piliostigma thonningii<\/i>\n                    (Schumach.)"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2020","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7780-9877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ben","family":"Olela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Mbaria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Timothy","family":"Wachira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5604-9987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gervason","family":"Moriasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/jir.s69656"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00562"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/jir.s167789"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/1614793"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8247014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/9130979"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21101321"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory and alalgesic activity of methanoic extract of medicinal plant Rhodiola rosea I. 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