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Sociocultural and regulatory aspects, as well as health policies, play a central role in addition to medical care and prescription practices. The users mainly display self-involved motivations related to cognitive enhancement, emotional stability, and adaptivity. Natural stimulants, as well as drugs, represent substance abuse groups. The latter comprise purines, methylxanthines, phenylethylamines, modafinil, nootropics, antidepressants but also benzodiazepines, \u03b2-adrenoceptor antagonists, and cannabis. Predominant pharmacodynamic target structures of these substances are the noradrenergic\/dopaminergic and cholinergic receptor\/transporter systems. Further targets comprise adenosine, serotonin, and glutamate receptors. Meta-analyses of randomized-controlled studies in healthy individuals show no or very limited verifiability of positive effects of pNE on attention, vigilance, learning, and memory. Only some members of the substance abuse groups, i.e., phenylethylamines and modafinil, display positive effects on attention and vigilance that are comparable to caffeinated drinks. However, the development of new antidementia drugs will increase the availability and the potential abuse of pNE. Social education, restrictive regulatory measures, and consistent medical prescription practices are essential to restrict the phenomenon of neuroenhancement with its social, medical, and ethical implications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the highly dynamic field of pharmacological neuroenhancement and elaborates the dramatic challenges for the medical, sociocultural, and ethical fundaments of society.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8823383","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,13]],"date-time":"2021-01-13T23:07:05Z","timestamp":1610579225000},"page":"1-27","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Pharmacological Neuroenhancement: Current Aspects of Categorization, Epidemiology, Pharmacology, Drug Development, Ethics, and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2021","author":[{"given":"Johanna","family":"Daubner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Imran","family":"Arshaad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Henseler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00fcrgen","family":"Hescheler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, Robert-Koch-Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Ehninger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Cellular Cognition, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, DZNE), Sigmund-Freud-Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karl","family":"Broich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Rawashdeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Papazoglou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6058-4752","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Marco","family":"Weiergr\u00e4ber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jme.2009.030882"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141289"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2014.00107"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1268417"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00103-010-1105-0"},{"key":"6","volume-title":"Hirndoping: Warum wir nicht alles schlucken sollten","author":"K. 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