{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T22:08:26Z","timestamp":1787695706063,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]],"date-time":"2022-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649635200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004160","name":"Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1483"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1483"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004160","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Purpose. Lophomonas spp., is an emerging protozoan parasite that belongs to the Parabasalids (Parabasalia, lophomonadida) which infects the respiratory tracts of humans. Despite the presence of a few reports of human lophomoniasis, the true burden of Lophomonas infection is unknown. This systematic review aimed to elucidate the latest global status of publications reporting human cases of lophomoniasis as a new emerging protozoal disease. Methods. A comprehensive and systematic search was performed in 10 (five English and five Persian) databases for studies reporting cases of lophomoniasis between 1993 and March 2020 (27 years). Then, the selected articles were carefully reviewed and screened based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results. Overall, 32 eligible publications reporting 307 lophomoniasis cases from around the world are included in this review. The patients were aged between 1 month and 84 (mean age\u2009=\u200923.7 years). The highest number of cases (n\u2009=\u2009171; 55.7%, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <a:math xmlns:a=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M1\">\n                        <a:mi>P<\/a:mi>\n                        <a:mo>&lt;<\/a:mo>\n                        <a:mn>0.04<\/a:mn>\n                     <\/a:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>) significantly belonged to the juvenile age group (aged \u226418 years). The male to female ratio of the cases was almost equal, and no statistically significant difference between them was observed. The maximum number of cases (n\u2009=\u2009237) was reported from Iran. Most cases (n\u2009=\u2009196; 63.85%) had no history of underlying diseases\/organ transplantation <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <c:math xmlns:c=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M2\">\n                        <c:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\" separators=\"|\">\n                           <c:mrow>\n                              <c:mi>P<\/c:mi>\n                              <c:mo>&lt;<\/c:mo>\n                              <c:mn>0.001<\/c:mn>\n                           <\/c:mrow>\n                        <\/c:mfenced>\n                     <\/c:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>. Moreover, the BAL specimen was the most commonly used clinical sample to diagnose lophomoniasis <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <h:math xmlns:h=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M3\">\n                        <h:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\" separators=\"|\">\n                           <h:mrow>\n                              <h:mi>P<\/h:mi>\n                              <h:mo>&lt;<\/h:mo>\n                              <h:mn>0.001<\/h:mn>\n                           <\/h:mrow>\n                        <\/h:mfenced>\n                     <\/h:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>. Conclusion. Our findings reveal that the prevalence of lophomoniasis is likely to be markedly underestimated when evaluated based on published case reports. Additionally, our data, at least for the time being, supports the idea that Lophomonas spp. should not be considered as an opportunistic infection. Thus, current work sheds light on some controversial issues regarding the epidemiological aspects of lophomoniasis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3155845","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T01:35:51Z","timestamp":1649727351000},"page":"1-9","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Global Status of Emerging Lophomonas Infection: A Systematic Review of Reported Cases (1993\u20142020)"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2022","author":[{"given":"Maryam","family":"Nakhaei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Communicable Diseases Institute, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4690-6938","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mahdi","family":"Fakhar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Communicable Diseases Institute, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9637-9905","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ali","family":"Sharifpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Communicable Diseases Institute, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"},{"name":"Pulmonary and Critical Care Division, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hajar","family":"Ziaei Hezarjaribi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Communicable Diseases Institute, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7178-5472","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elham Sadat","family":"Banimostafavi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Communicable Diseases Institute, Iranian National Registry Center for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Radiology, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eisa","family":"Nazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Committee, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protis.2009.11.005","article-title":"Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species","volume":"161","author":"I. Cepicka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Protist"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protis.2011.07.002","article-title":"Phylogenetic position of lophomonas striata b\u00fctschli (Parabasalia) from the hindgut of the cockroach periplaneta americana","volume":"163","author":"G. H. Gile","year":"2012","journal-title":"Protist"},{"key":"3","first-page":"178","volume-title":"Lophomonas and Lophomoniasis,\u201d Noorouzi Publisher","author":"M. Fakhar","year":"2021"},{"issue":"9","key":"4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Retrospect and prospect of Lophomonas blattarum infections and lophomoniasis reported in China","volume":"1","author":"X. R. Q. Liao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Open Access Library Journal"},{"key":"5","first-page":"28","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum infection in human respiratory tract, one case report","volume":"11","author":"S. X. Chen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/2614187"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/912346"},{"issue":"6","key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.4103\/0970-2113.192867","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum infection in immunocompetent patient","volume":"33","author":"R. Tyagi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lung India"},{"issue":"4","key":"9","first-page":"575","article-title":"Lophomonas sp. in respiratory tract secretions in hospitalized children with severe lung disease","volume":"27","author":"R. Zerpa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Revista Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud P\u00fablica"},{"issue":"1","key":"10","first-page":"5","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum detection in methylene blue-stained sputum samples from adults individuals inhabitants of urban area of Chiriqui province","volume":"22","author":"R. Sobarzo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tecnociencia"},{"issue":"10","key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E899","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.09.19","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary infection by Lophomonas blattarum in a pediatric patient after hematopoietic progenitor cell transplantation: first report in Mexico","volume":"9","author":"N. G. Salda\u00f1a","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Thoracic Disease"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.2478\/s11686-019-00084-2","article-title":"First molecular diagnosis of lophomoniasis: the end of a controversial story","volume":"64","author":"M. 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Berenji","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Journal of Medical Research & Health Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2017.6229","article-title":"Resistance to epithelial growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors in a patient with transformation from lung adenocarcinoma to small cell lung cancer: a case report","volume":"14","author":"L. Fang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncology Letters"},{"issue":"1","key":"31","first-page":"1","article-title":"First case of pulmonary lophomoniasis in Mexico","volume":"2017","author":"J. A. De Diego-Cabrera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene"},{"issue":"5","key":"32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum in asthmatic patients and control group","volume":"5","author":"F. Mirzazadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Medical and Dental Science"},{"issue":"10","key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.17.0322","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum co-infection in a patient with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis","volume":"21","author":"C. Thakur","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Tuberculosis & Lung Disease"},{"issue":"2","key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.29252\/mlj.12.2.44","article-title":"Chronic respiratory allergy caused by Lophomonas blattarum: a case report","volume":"12","author":"O. Jorjani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medical Laboratory Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"35","first-page":"312","article-title":"A study about clinical symptoms and laboratory signs of adult and pediatric patients with Lophomonas blattarum","volume":"6","author":"M. Talebian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Medical and Dental Science"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmcr.2019.100939","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary lophomoniasis: a rare cause of pneumonia in an immunosuppressed host","volume":"28","author":"W. Wahid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respiratory medicine case reports"},{"issue":"3","key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.5152\/ejra.2019.161","article-title":"A rare reproduction in paranasal sinuses; Lophomonas blattarum","volume":"2","author":"Y. B. Bak\u0131\u015f","year":"2019","journal-title":"European Journal of Rhinology and Allergy"},{"issue":"1","key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.4274\/tpd.galenos.2018.6031","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum associated broncho-pulmonary infection after immunotherapy: a case report and A smart-phone based video of trophozoite","volume":"43","author":"O. Zorbozan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Turkish Journal of Parasitology"},{"issue":"1","key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v7.i1.95","article-title":"Authenticity of pulmonary Lophomonas blattarum infection: a case report","volume":"7","author":"S. S. Meng","year":"2019","journal-title":"World Journal of Clinical Cases"},{"issue":"6","key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.178025","article-title":"Lophomonas blattarum infection or just the movement of ciliated epithelial cells?","volume":"129","author":"R. Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chinese Medical Journal"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-021-00468-3","article-title":"First Co-morbidity of Lophomonas blattarum and COVID-19 infections: confirmed using molecular approach","volume":"67","author":"M. Nakhaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Parasitologica"},{"issue":"9","key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/ccr3.4822","article-title":"Post\u2010COVID\u201019 co\u2010morbidity of emerged Lophomonas infection and invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: first case report","volume":"9","author":"A. Sharifpour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clinical Case Reports"},{"issue":"4","key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-021-00422-3","article-title":"Morphological and molecular identification of emerged Lophomonas blattarum infection in mazandaran province, northern Iran: first registry-based study","volume":"66","author":"M. Fakhar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Parasitologica"},{"issue":"4","key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-021-01381-2","article-title":"First report of Lophomonas spp. in german cockroaches (blattella germanica) trapped in hospitals, northern Iran","volume":"l45","author":"S. F. Motevalli-Haghi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Parasitic Diseases"},{"issue":"2","key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.2174\/1871526520666200727153142","article-title":"A bibliometric analysis of global research on Lophomonas spp. in Scopus (1933\u20132019)","volume":"21","author":"M. Keighobadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infectious Disorders\u2014Drug Targets"}],"container-title":["Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/ipid\/2022\/3155845.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/ipid\/2022\/3155845.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/ipid\/2022\/3155845.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T01:36:31Z","timestamp":1649727391000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/ipid\/2022\/3155845\/"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Vijay Kumar","family":"Srivastava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]},"references-count":45,"alternative-id":["3155845","3155845"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/3155845","relation":{},"ISSN":["1687-7098","1687-708X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1687-7098","type":"electronic"},{"value":"1687-708X","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]}}}