{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T05:34:42Z","timestamp":1770528882896,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]],"date-time":"2022-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654041600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"New Partnership for Africa\u2019s Development","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}]},{"name":"New Partnership for Africa\u2019s Development","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014163","name":"Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science in Africa","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014163","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014163","name":"Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science in Africa","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014163","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011858","name":"African Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011858","name":"African Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"DELTAS Africa Initiative","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}]},{"name":"DELTAS Africa Initiative","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012839","name":"Gulu University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#107742\/Z\/15\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012839","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012839","name":"Gulu University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#DEL-15-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#DEL-15-011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012839","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Parasitology Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Background. Tsetse flies are vectors of the genus Trypanosoma that cause African trypanosomiasis, a serious parasitic disease of people and animals. Reliable data on the vector distribution and the trypanosome species they carry is pertinent for planning sustainable control strategies. This study was carried out to estimate the spatial distribution, apparent density, and trypanosome infection rates of tsetse flies in two districts that fall within a vector genetic transition zone in northern Uganda. Materials and Methods. Capturing of tsetse flies was done using biconical traps deployed in eight villages in Oyam and Otuke, two districts that fall within the vector genetic transition zone in northern Uganda. Trapped tsetse flies were sexed and morphologically identified to species level and subsequently analyzed for detection of trypanosome DNA. Trypanosome DNA was detected using a nested PCR protocol based on primers amplifying the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA. Results. A total of 717 flies (406 females; 311 males) were caught, all belonging to the Glossina fuscipes fuscipes species. The overall average flies\/trap\/day (FTD) was <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <a:math xmlns:a=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M1\">\n                        <a:mn>2.20<\/a:mn>\n                        <a:mo>\u00b1<\/a:mo>\n                        <a:mn>0.3527<\/a:mn>\n                     <\/a:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula> (<jats:inline-formula>\n                     <c:math xmlns:c=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M2\">\n                        <c:mtext>mean<\/c:mtext>\n                        <c:mo>\u00b1<\/c:mo>\n                        <c:mtext>SE<\/c:mtext>\n                     <\/c:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>). Out of the 477 (201 male; 276 females) flies analyzed, 7.13% (34\/477) were positive for one or more trypanosome species. Three species of bovine trypanosomes were detected, namely, Trypanosoma vivax, 61.76% (21\/34), T. congolense, 26.47% (9\/34), and T. brucei brucei, 5.88% (2\/34), and two cases of mixed infection of T. congolense and T. brucei brucei, 5.88% (2\/34). The infection rate was not significantly associated with the sex of the fly (generalized linear model (GLM), <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <e:math xmlns:e=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M3\">\n                        <e:msup>\n                           <e:mrow>\n                              <e:mi>\u03c7<\/e:mi>\n                           <\/e:mrow>\n                           <e:mrow>\n                              <e:mn>2<\/e:mn>\n                           <\/e:mrow>\n                        <\/e:msup>\n                        <e:mo>=<\/e:mo>\n                        <e:mn>0.051<\/e:mn>\n                     <\/e:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <g:math xmlns:g=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M4\">\n                        <g:mi>p<\/g:mi>\n                        <g:mo>=<\/g:mo>\n                        <g:mn>0.821<\/g:mn>\n                     <\/g:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <i:math xmlns:i=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M5\">\n                        <i:mtext>df<\/i:mtext>\n                        <i:mo>=<\/i:mo>\n                        <i:mn>1<\/i:mn>\n                        <i:mo>,<\/i:mo>\n                        <i:mtext>n<\/i:mtext>\n                        <i:mo>=<\/i:mo>\n                        <i:mn>477<\/i:mn>\n                     <\/i:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>)\u2009and district of origin (<jats:inline-formula>\n                     <k:math xmlns:k=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M6\">\n                        <k:msup>\n                           <k:mrow>\n                              <k:mi>\u03c7<\/k:mi>\n                           <\/k:mrow>\n                           <k:mrow>\n                              <k:mn>2<\/k:mn>\n                           <\/k:mrow>\n                        <\/k:msup>\n                        <k:mo>=<\/k:mo>\n                        <k:mn>0.611<\/k:mn>\n                     <\/k:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <m:math xmlns:m=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M7\">\n                        <m:mi>p<\/m:mi>\n                        <m:mo>=<\/m:mo>\n                        <m:mn>0.434<\/m:mn>\n                     <\/m:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <o:math xmlns:o=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M8\">\n                        <o:mtext>df<\/o:mtext>\n                        <o:mo>=<\/o:mo>\n                        <o:mn>1<\/o:mn>\n                     <\/o:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <q:math xmlns:q=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M9\">\n                        <q:mi>n<\/q:mi>\n                        <q:mo>=<\/q:mo>\n                        <q:mn>477<\/q:mn>\n                     <\/q:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>). However, trypanosome infection was highly significantly associated with the fly\u2019s age based on wing fray category (<jats:inline-formula>\n                     <s:math xmlns:s=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M10\">\n                        <s:msup>\n                           <s:mrow>\n                              <s:mi>\u03c7<\/s:mi>\n                           <\/s:mrow>\n                           <s:mrow>\n                              <s:mn>2<\/s:mn>\n                           <\/s:mrow>\n                        <\/s:msup>\n                        <s:mo>=<\/s:mo>\n                        <s:mn>7.56<\/s:mn>\n                     <\/s:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <u:math xmlns:u=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M11\">\n                        <u:mi>p<\/u:mi>\n                        <u:mo>=<\/u:mo>\n                        <u:mn>0.006<\/u:mn>\n                     <\/u:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <w:math xmlns:w=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M12\">\n                        <w:mtext>df<\/w:mtext>\n                        <w:mo>=<\/w:mo>\n                        <w:mn>1<\/w:mn>\n                     <\/w:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>, <jats:inline-formula>\n                     <y:math xmlns:y=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"M13\">\n                        <y:mi>n<\/y:mi>\n                        <y:mo>=<\/y:mo>\n                        <y:mn>477<\/y:mn>\n                     <\/y:math>\n                  <\/jats:inline-formula>), being higher among the very old than the young. Conclusion. The relatively high tsetse density and trypanosome infection rate indicate that the transition zone is a high-risk area for perpetuating animal trypanosomiasis. Therefore, appropriate mitigation measures should be instituted targeting tsetse and other biting flies that may play a role as disease vectors, given the predominance of T. vivax in the tsetse samples.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/9142551","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]],"date-time":"2022-06-01T21:05:15Z","timestamp":1654117515000},"page":"1-6","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Spatial Distribution of Tsetse Flies and Trypanosome Infection Status in a Vector Genetic Transition Zone in Northern Uganda"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2022","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4246-9336","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Robert","family":"Opiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"},{"name":"Gulu University Multifunctional Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Okello Allele","family":"Moses","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8886-7685","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Robert","family":"Opoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Muni University, P.O. Box 725, Arua, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Francis A.","family":"Oloya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"},{"name":"Gulu University Multifunctional Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8255-1743","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Esther","family":"Nakafu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Iwiru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gulu University Multifunctional Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1979-1012","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richard","family":"Echodu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"},{"name":"Gulu University Multifunctional Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6551-2897","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Geoffrey M.","family":"Malinga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8573-6807","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joel L.","family":"Bargul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5944-8668","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elizabeth A.","family":"Opiyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-1-3"},{"key":"2","volume-title":"Global geospatial datasets for African trypanosomiasis management: a review. Geospatial datasets and analyses for an environmental approach to African trypanosomiasis","author":"G. 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Wint","year":"2000"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4050"},{"key":"19","volume-title":"Tsetse Biology and Ecology: Their Role in the Epidemiology and Control of Trypanosomosis","author":"S. G. A. Leak","year":"1999"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2005.00584.x"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1522-5"},{"issue":"3","key":"22","first-page":"283","article-title":"Peridomestic breeding sites of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes Newst. in Busoga, Uganda, and epidemiological implications for trypanosomiasis","volume":"43","author":"J. O. Okoth","year":"1986","journal-title":"Acta Tropica"},{"key":"23","first-page":"225","article-title":"Trypanosome infection rates in tsetse (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) in communal grazing lands in mid-northern Uganda","volume":"20","author":"R. Azabo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Online Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"24","volume-title":"A survey of the species composition, distribution and relative abundance of tsetseflies (Diptera: Glossinidae) of Adjumani district, north western Uganda","author":"BSc M (Candidate) CAB","year":"2013"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-03071-w"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2006.06.005"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3370151008"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-020-00249-0"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-4894(03)00067-5"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2006.06.032"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000064933"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-706X(92)90045-Y"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/jphp.2015.39"}],"container-title":["Journal of Parasitology Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/jpr\/2022\/9142551.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/jpr\/2022\/9142551.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/jpr\/2022\/9142551.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]],"date-time":"2022-06-01T21:05:35Z","timestamp":1654117535000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jpr\/2022\/9142551\/"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jos\u00e9 F.","family":"Silveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]]},"references-count":33,"alternative-id":["9142551","9142551"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/9142551","relation":{},"ISSN":["2090-0031","2090-0023"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2090-0031","type":"electronic"},{"value":"2090-0023","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]]}}}