{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T13:18:25Z","timestamp":1783689505717,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":325,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32200890"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32200890"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022M712791"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022M712791"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["International Journal of Intelligent Systems"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Eye tracking has emerged as a valuable tool for both research and clinical applications. However, traditional eye\u2010tracking systems are often bulky and expensive, limiting their widespread adoption in various fields. Smartphone eye tracking has become feasible with advanced deep learning and edge computing technologies. However, the field still faces practical challenges related to large\u2010scale datasets, model inference speed, and gaze estimation accuracy. The present study created a new dataset that contains over 3.2 million face images collected with recent phone models and presents a comprehensive smartphone eye\u2010tracking pipeline comprising a deep neural network framework (MGazeNet), a personalized model calibration method, and a heuristic gaze signal filter. The MGazeNet model introduced a linear adaptive batch normalization module to efficiently combine eye and face features, achieving the state\u2010of\u2010the\u2010art gaze estimation accuracy of 1.59\u2009cm on the GazeCapture dataset and 1.48\u2009cm on our custom dataset. In addition, an algorithm that utilizes multiverse optimization to optimize the hyperparameters of support vector regression (MVO\u2013SVR) was proposed to improve eye\u2010tracking calibration accuracy with 13 or fewer ground\u2010truth gaze points, further improving gaze estimation accuracy to 0.89\u2009cm. This integrated approach allows for eye tracking with accuracy comparable to that of research\u2010grade eye trackers, offering new application possibilities for smartphone eye tracking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/2644725","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T11:19:28Z","timestamp":1732187968000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Neural Networks With Linear Adaptive Batch Normalization and Swarm Intelligence Calibration for Real\u2010Time Gaze Estimation on Smartphones"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2024","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4329-4219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gancheng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongkai","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4457-9240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8849-8057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoting","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9701-5708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zehao","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6373-8721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhaomin","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4553-0198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiguo","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.02.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.124.3.372"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113135"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.87.4.329"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3546938"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2610-16.2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intmar.2019.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2016.11.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.06.023"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2016.01.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-022-01463-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03201553"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1974.324318"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-020-01512-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.16910\/jemr.14.3.3"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3236886"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_2","volume-title":"Smartphone Subscriptions Worldwide 2027","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S375395"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2017.10.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LiY. ZhanY. andYangZ. Evaluation of Appearance-Based Eye Tracking Calibration Data Selection 2020 IEEE International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Computer Applications (ICAICA) June 2020 222\u2013224 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/icaica50127.2020.9181854.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAICA50127.2020.9181854"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KrafkaK. KhoslaA. KellnhoferP.et al. Eye Tracking for Everyone IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) June 2016 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/cvpr.2016.239 2-s2.0-84986285613.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.239"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3606947"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MoraK. A. F.andOdobezJ.-M. Person Independent 3D Gaze Estimation From Remote RGB-D Cameras 2013 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing September 2013 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/icip.2013.6738574 2-s2.0-84897817928.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2013.6738574"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2009.30"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BrousseauB. RoseJ. andEizenmanM. SmartEye: An Accurate Infrared Eye Tracking System for Smartphones 2018 9th IEEE Annual Ubiquitous Computing Electronics & Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON) March 2018 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/uemcon.2018.8796799 2-s2.0-85071553999.","DOI":"10.1109\/UEMCON.2018.8796799"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_26_2","article-title":"Frame-Rate Pupil Detector and Gaze Tracker","volume":"99","author":"Morimoto C. H.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE ICCV"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2015.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SarkarN. StrathearnD. LeeG. OlfatM. RohaniA. andMansourR. R. A Large Angle Low Voltage Small Footprint Micromirror for Eye Tracking and Near-Eye Display Applications 2015 Transducers-2015 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS) April 2015 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/transducers.2015.7181058 2-s2.0-84955463553.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181058"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00138-017-0852-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HeJ. PhamK. ValliappanN.et al. On-device Few-Shot Personalization for Real-Time Gaze Estimation Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops May 2019 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/iccvw.2019.00146.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW.2019.00146"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18360-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BaoY. ChengY. LiuY. andLuF. Adaptive Feature Fusion Network for Gaze Tracking in Mobile Tablets 2020 25th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR) August 2021 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/icpr48806.2021.9412205.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPR48806.2021.9412205"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_33_2","first-page":"51","article-title":"It\u2019s Written All over Your Face: Full-Face Appearance-Based Gaze Estimation","author":"Zhang X.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_34_2","volume-title":"A Generalized and Robust Method towards Practical Gaze Estimation on Smart Phone","author":"Guo T.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BalimH. ParkS. WangX. ZhangX. andHilligesO. EFE: End-To-End Frame-To-Gaze Estimation IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) August 2023 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/cvprw59228.2023.00269.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW59228.2023.00269"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-75412-1","volume-title":"Passive Eye Monitoring: Algorithms, Applications and Experiments","author":"Hammoud R. I.","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0247-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3591127"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"YangS. HeY. andJinM. vGaze: Implicit Saliency-Aware Calibration for Continuous Gaze Tracking on Mobile Devices IEEE INFOCOM 2021-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications May 2021 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/infocom42981.2021.9488668.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM42981.2021.9488668"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_40_2","article-title":"Components of Visual Orienting","volume":"32","author":"Posner M.","year":"1984","journal-title":"Attention and Performance X: Control of Language Processes"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2020.08.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2017.2778103"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-015-1870-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_44_2","volume-title":"Eye Tracking: A Comprehensive Guide to Methods and Measures","author":"Holmqvist K.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03204486"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208639"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_47_2","unstructured":"ZhuG. PhoneRealTimeGazeEstimation 2024."},{"key":"e_1_2_10_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:STCO.0000035301.49549.88"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.14"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2018.09.029"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38652-7","volume-title":"Dimensionality Reduction with Unsupervised Nearest Neighbors","author":"Kramer O.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICNN.1995.488968"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5267\/j.ijiec.2015.8.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwad038"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.13140\/RG.2.2.26871.55200"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-023-02187-1"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Intelligent Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1155\/2024\/2644725","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T11:19:38Z","timestamp":1732187978000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1155\/2024\/2644725"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Ho\u0161ovsk\u00fd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1155\/2024\/2644725"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2024\/2644725","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0884-8173","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-111X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]},"article-number":"2644725"}}