{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T16:56:32Z","timestamp":1790700992673,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":9,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kenya Wildlife Service"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Transboundary and Emerging Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Ulcerative skin lesions caused by <jats:italic>Stephanofilaria dinniki<\/jats:italic> are common in populations of the critically endangered eastern black rhinoceros (<jats:italic>Diceros bicornis michaeli<\/jats:italic>). Although considered benign, they have been associated with loss of body condition and mortality in rhinoceros. Stephanofilarial lesions in rhinoceros may also lead to delayed puberty, reduced milk yields, and prolonged intercalving periods as observed with a similar disease in cattle. In this study the prevalence and predilection sites of stephanofilarial wounds were examined and the influence of age, sex, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), rainfall, temperature, rhinoceros\u2019 species, and population density on the prevalence of stephanofilarial skin lesions was evaluated in 10 rhinoceros\u2019 populations in Kenya. The results revealed that the prevalence of stephanofilarial skin lesions was 0% in the lowland sanctuaries such as Ngulia Rhino Sanctuary, Tsavo West Intensive Protection Zone, and Tsavo East National Park to \u226590% in the highland rhinoceros\u2019 sanctuaries including Solio Wildlife Sanctuary, Ol Pejeta Wildlife Conservancy, Lewa\u2010Borana Wildlife Conservancies, and Nairobi National Park. Generalized linear models revealed that monthly minimum temperature and NDVI negatively influenced the probability of stephanofilarial skin lesions. However, spatial heterogeneity in NDVI, and rhino density were positively related to the probability of rhinoceros\u2019 infection with <jats:italic>Stephanofilaria<\/jats:italic>. Black rhinoceros had a higher average prevalence of stephanofilarial wounds (50.9%, <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009228) than white rhinoceros\u2019 (3.6%, <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009110). Temperature and heterogeneity in NDVI can directly influence the presence of the filaria vector <jats:italic>Rhinomusca dutoiti<\/jats:italic> as corroborated by the previous studies on their distribution. Moreover, the inverse relationship between NDVI and the prevalence of stephanofilarial skin lesions suggests that nutrition negatively impacts rhinoceros\u2019 immunity. Comprehensive studies on the vectors of <jats:italic>Stephanofilaria<\/jats:italic> and their bionomics may illuminate the epidemiological patterns of stephanofilariosis in rhinoceros.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/2655970","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T18:20:06Z","timestamp":1704910806000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Identifying Risk Factors for <i>Stephanofilaria<\/i>\u2010Caused Ulcerative Dermal Lesions, in Black and White Rhinoceros\u2019 Meta\u2010Population in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2024","author":[{"given":"Edward","family":"King\u2019ori","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace","family":"Waiguchu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mukami","family":"Ruoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenneth","family":"Muriithi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cecilia","family":"Mumbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Omondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Duncan","family":"Aminga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaleen","family":"Angwenyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domnic","family":"Mijele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6534-8708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick I.","family":"Chiyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X00033630"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X0003371X"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-206"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182008005246"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2656.2002.00659.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2004.0202"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_2","first-page":"500","article-title":"Stephanofilariasis in bovines: prevalence, control and eradication in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India","volume":"80","author":"Rai R. 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