{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T10:29:05Z","timestamp":1790418545981,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3-4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2000,1,1]],"date-time":"2000-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":946684800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Neural Plasticity"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The present review focuses on the hypothesis\nthat norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA)\nact as learning signals. Both NE and DA are\nbroadly distributed in areas concerned with the\nrepresentation of the world and with the\nconjunction of sensory inputs and motor outputs.\nBoth are released at times of novelty and\nuncertainty, providing plausible signal events\nfor updating representations and associations.\nThese catecholamines activate intracellular\nmachinery postulated to serve as a memory\u2010formation\ncascade. Yet, despite the plausibility\nof an NE and DA role in vertebrate learning\nand memory, most evidence that they provide a\nlearning signal is circumstantial. The major\nweakness of the data available is the lack of a\nspecific description of how the neural circuit\nmodulated by NE or DA participates in the\nlearning being analyzed. Identifying a conditioned\nstimuli (CS) representation would facilitate the\nidentification of a learning signal role for NE or\nDA. Describing how the CS representation\ncomes to relate to learned behavior, either\nthrough sensory\u2010sensory associations, in which\nthe CS acquires the motivational significance of\nreward or punishment, thus driving appropriate\nbehavior, or through direct sensory\u2010motor\nassociations is necessary to identify how NE and DA participate in memory creation. As\ndescribed here, evidence consistent with a\ndirect learning signal role for NE and DA is\nseen in the changing of sensory circuits in odor\npreference learning (NE), defensive conditioning\n(NE), and auditory cortex remodeling in adult\nrats (DA). Evidence that NE and DA contribute\nto normal learning through unspecified\nmechanisms is extensive, but the details of that\nsupport role are lacking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/np.2004.191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,3,15]],"date-time":"2007-03-15T09:22:50Z","timestamp":1173950570000},"page":"191-204","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":106,"title":["Norepinephrine and Dopamine as Learning Signals"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Carolyn W.","family":"Harley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,1]]},"container-title":["Neural Plasticity"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/downloads.hindawi.com\/journals\/np\/2004\/360813.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1155\/NP.2004.191","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,9]],"date-time":"2024-08-09T09:30:42Z","timestamp":1723195842000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1155\/NP.2004.191"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,1]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3-4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1155\/NP.2004.191"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/np.2004.191","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2090-5904","1687-5443"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2090-5904","type":"print"},{"value":"1687-5443","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2004,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2004-01-01","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}