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However, the underlying mechanism of this process is incompletely known. Consequently, we utilized a virgin rat model of dietary VAD (3 and 6 months) and subsequently intervened with a vitamin A sufficient (VAS) diet (0.5 or 1 month) prior to treatment completion. This experimental model allowed us to investigate the underlying molecular mechanism of mammary gland tissue dysfunction caused by VAD. Dietary VAD for 3 and 6 months caused increased inflammatory cell infiltration in the mammary gland parenchyma and glandular cells, with increased inflammation and apoptosis and reduced cell proliferation. These changes can be reversed with a VAS diet. Imbalances between the NF\u2010\u03baB and retinoic acid (RA) signaling pathways underlie mammary gland dysfunction following subchronic VAD. Nulliparous rats fed a VAD diet experience mammary gland epithelial dysfunction because of inflammation, apoptosis, and impaired cell growth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1155\/omcl\/6334165","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T12:50:03Z","timestamp":1752497403000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Apoptosis in the Mammary Gland of Virgin Rats Subchronically Fed With a Vitamin A Deficient Diet"],"prefix":"10.1155","volume":"2025","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8688-9394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Vasquez Gomez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2039-0731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V.","family":"Filippa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4582-5324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Acosta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3196-8922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4071-2315","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F.","family":"Campo Verde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7440-3476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G. 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