{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T12:37:38Z","timestamp":1782218258904,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":300,"publisher":"S. Karger AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Innate Immun"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The interactions between viruses and the host immune response are nuanced and intricate. The cytokine response arguably plays a central role in dictating the outcome of virus infection, balancing inflammation, and healing, which is crucial to resolving infection without destructive immunopathologies. Summary: Early innate immune responses are key to the generation of a beneficial or detrimental immune response. These initial responses are regulated by a plethora of surface bound, endosomal, and cytoplasmic innate immune receptors known as pattern recognition receptors. Of these, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in the induction of cytokines during virus infection. Recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as viral proteins and\/or nucleotide sequences, the TLRs act as sentinels for the initiation and propagation of immune responses. Key Messages: TLRs are important receptors for initiating the innate response to single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses like influenza A virus (IAV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-1 (SARS-CoV-1), SARS-CoV-2, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, dengue virus, and Ebola virus. Infection with these viruses is also associated with aberrant expression of proinflammatory cytokines that contribute to a harmful cytokine storm response. Herein we discuss the connections between these ssRNA viruses, cytokine storm, and the roles of TLRs. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1159\/000543608","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,17]],"date-time":"2025-01-17T17:01:00Z","timestamp":1737133260000},"page":"126-153","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["RNA Viruses, Toll-Like Receptors, and Cytokines: The Perfect Storm?"],"prefix":"10.1159","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sophia K.","family":"Stegeman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olena","family":"Kourko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heather","family":"Amsden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabella E.","family":"Pellizzari Delano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John 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