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We first discuss the strengths and limitations of various techniques for assessing the sympathetic nervous system in humans, with a focus on heart rate, plasma norepinephrine, microneurographic recording of sympathetic nerve traffic, and measurements of radiolabeled norepinephrine spillover. We then examine the evidence supporting the importance of neuroadrenergic factors as promoters and amplifiers of human hypertension. We expand on the role of the sympathetic nervous system in 2 increasingly common forms of secondary hypertension, namely hypertension associated with obesity and with renal disease. With this background, we examine interventions of sympathetic deactivation as a mode of antihypertensive treatment. Particular emphasis is given to the background and results of recent therapeutic approaches based on carotid baroreceptor stimulation and radiofrequency ablation of the renal nerves.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1161\/circresaha.116.303604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]],"date-time":"2015-03-12T16:51:42Z","timestamp":1426179102000},"page":"976-990","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":567,"title":["The Sympathetic Nervous System Alterations in Human Hypertension"],"prefix":"10.1161","volume":"116","author":[{"given":"Guido","family":"Grassi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"From the Clinica Medica, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Universit\u00e0 Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy (G.G.); IRCCS Multimedica, Sesto San Giovanni, Milano, Italy (G.G.); Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City (A.M.); and Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia (M.E.)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Allyn","family":"Mark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"From the Clinica Medica, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Universit\u00e0 Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy (G.G.); IRCCS Multimedica, Sesto San Giovanni, Milano, Italy (G.G.); Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City (A.M.); and Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia (M.E.)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Murray","family":"Esler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"From the Clinica Medica, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Universit\u00e0 Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy (G.G.); IRCCS Multimedica, Sesto San Giovanni, Milano, Italy (G.G.); Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City (A.M.); and Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia (M.E.)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.113.302549"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.73.5.913"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.25.4.560"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118235"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000103123.66264.FE"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1798-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198409273111303"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/euhj.2000.2407"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.57.5.833"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/hc1102.105261"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2008.03.056"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-013-9544-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","first-page":"208","article-title":"Sympathetic hyperactivity and clinical outcome in chronic kidney disease patients during standard treatment.","volume":"22","author":"Penne EL","year":"2009","unstructured":"Penne EL, Neumann J, Klein IH, Oey PL, Bots ML, Blankestijn PJ. 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